Split glasgow_exts into several files (#17316)

122 files changed, 17295 insertions, 17042 deletions

diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a41565f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+.. _ghc-language-features:
+
+Language extensions
+===================
+
+.. index::
+   single: language, GHC extensions
+
+.. toctree::
+    :maxdepth: 1
+
+    exts/intro
+    exts/syntax
+    exts/import_export
+    exts/types
+    exts/records
+    exts/deriving
+    exts/patterns
+    exts/typeclasses
+    exts/literals
+    exts/constraints
+    exts/type_signatures
+    exts/bindings
+    exts/template_haskell
+    exts/strict
+    exts/parallel
+    exts/primitives
+    exts/ffi
+    exts/safe_haskell
+    exts/misc
+    exts/pragmas
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/ambiguous_types.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/ambiguous_types.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4d44f15
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/ambiguous_types.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,147 @@
+.. _ambiguity:
+
+Ambiguous types and the ambiguity check
+---------------------------------------
+
+.. extension:: AllowAmbiguousTypes
+    :shortdesc: Allow the user to write ambiguous types, and
+        the type inference engine to infer them.
+
+    :since: 7.8.1
+
+    Allow type signatures which appear that they would result in
+    an unusable binding.
+
+Each user-written type signature is subjected to an *ambiguity check*.
+The ambiguity check rejects functions that can never be called; for
+example: ::
+
+       f :: C a => Int
+
+The idea is there can be no legal calls to ``f`` because every call will
+give rise to an ambiguous constraint. Indeed, the *only* purpose of the
+ambiguity check is to report functions that cannot possibly be called.
+We could soundly omit the ambiguity check on type signatures entirely,
+at the expense of delaying ambiguity errors to call sites. Indeed, the
+language extension :extension:`AllowAmbiguousTypes` switches off the ambiguity
+check.
+
+Ambiguity can be subtle. Consider this example which uses functional
+dependencies: ::
+
+       class D a b | a -> b where ..
+       h :: D Int b => Int
+
+The ``Int`` may well fix ``b`` at the call site, so that signature
+should not be rejected. Moreover, the dependencies might be hidden.
+Consider ::
+
+       class X a b where ...
+       class D a b | a -> b where ...
+       instance D a b => X [a] b where...
+       h :: X a b => a -> a
+
+Here ``h``\'s type looks ambiguous in ``b``, but here's a legal call: ::
+
+       ...(h [True])...
+
+That gives rise to a ``(X [Bool] beta)`` constraint, and using the
+instance means we need ``(D Bool beta)`` and that fixes ``beta`` via
+``D``\'s fundep!
+
+Behind all these special cases there is a simple guiding principle.
+Consider ::
+
+      f :: type
+      f = ...blah...
+
+      g :: type
+      g = f
+
+You would think that the definition of ``g`` would surely typecheck!
+After all ``f`` has exactly the same type, and ``g=f``. But in fact
+``f``\'s type is instantiated and the instantiated constraints are solved
+against the constraints bound by ``g``\ 's signature. So, in the case an
+ambiguous type, solving will fail. For example, consider the earlier
+definition ``f :: C a => Int``: ::
+
+      f :: C a => Int
+      f = ...blah...
+
+      g :: C a => Int
+      g = f
+
+In ``g``\'s definition, we'll instantiate to ``(C alpha)`` and try to
+deduce ``(C alpha)`` from ``(C a)``, and fail.
+
+So in fact we use this as our *definition* of ambiguity: a type ``ty``
+is ambiguous if and only if ``((undefined :: ty) :: ty)`` would fail to
+typecheck. We use a very similar test for *inferred* types, to ensure
+that they too are unambiguous.
+
+*Switching off the ambiguity check.* Even if a function has an
+ambiguous type according the "guiding principle", it is possible that
+the function is callable. For example: ::
+
+      class D a b where ...
+      instance D Bool b where ...
+
+      strange :: D a b => a -> a
+      strange = ...blah...
+
+      foo = strange True
+
+Here ``strange``\'s type is ambiguous, but the call in ``foo`` is OK
+because it gives rise to a constraint ``(D Bool beta)``, which is
+soluble by the ``(D Bool b)`` instance.
+
+Another way of getting rid of the ambiguity at the call site is to use
+the :extension:`TypeApplications` extension to specify the types. For example: ::
+
+      class D a b where
+        h :: b
+      instance D Int Int where ...
+
+      main = print (h @Int @Int)
+
+Here ``a`` is ambiguous in the definition of ``D`` but later specified
+to be `Int` using type applications.
+
+:extension:`AllowAmbiguousTypes` allows you to switch off the ambiguity check.
+However, even with ambiguity checking switched off, GHC will complain about a
+function that can *never* be called, such as this one: ::
+
+      f :: (Int ~ Bool) => a -> a
+
+Sometimes :extension:`AllowAmbiguousTypes` does not mix well with :extension:`RankNTypes`.
+For example: ::
+
+      foo :: forall r. (forall i. (KnownNat i) => r) -> r
+      foo f = f @1
+
+      boo :: forall j. (KnownNat j) => Int
+      boo = ....
+
+      h :: Int
+      h = foo boo
+
+This program will be rejected as ambiguous because GHC will not unify
+the type variables `j` and `i`.
+
+Unlike the previous examples, it is not currently possible
+to resolve the ambiguity manually by using :extension:`TypeApplications`.
+
+
+.. note::
+    *A historical note.* GHC used to impose some more restrictive and less
+    principled conditions on type signatures. For type
+    ``forall tv1..tvn (c1, ...,cn) => type`` GHC used to require
+
+     a. that each universally quantified type variable ``tvi`` must be "reachable"
+        from ``type``, and
+
+     b. that every constraint ``ci`` mentions at least one of the universally
+        quantified type variables ``tvi``. These ad-hoc restrictions are
+        completely subsumed by the new ambiguity check.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/applicative_do.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/applicative_do.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..460ae3d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/applicative_do.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,192 @@
+.. _applicative-do:
+
+Applicative do-notation
+-----------------------
+
+.. index::
+   single: Applicative do-notation
+   single: do-notation; Applicative
+
+.. extension:: ApplicativeDo
+    :shortdesc: Enable Applicative do-notation desugaring
+
+    :since: 8.0.1
+
+    Allow use of ``Applicative`` ``do`` notation.
+
+The language option :extension:`ApplicativeDo` enables an alternative translation for
+the do-notation, which uses the operators ``<$>``, ``<*>``, along with ``join``
+as far as possible. There are two main reasons for wanting to do this:
+
+-  We can use do-notation with types that are an instance of ``Applicative`` and
+   ``Functor``, but not ``Monad``
+-  In some monads, using the applicative operators is more efficient than monadic
+   bind. For example, it may enable more parallelism.
+
+Applicative do-notation desugaring preserves the original semantics, provided
+that the ``Applicative`` instance satisfies ``<*> = ap`` and ``pure = return``
+(these are true of all the common monadic types). Thus, you can normally turn on
+:extension:`ApplicativeDo` without fear of breaking your program. There is one pitfall
+to watch out for; see :ref:`applicative-do-pitfall`.
+
+There are no syntactic changes with :extension:`ApplicativeDo`. The only way it shows
+up at the source level is that you can have a ``do`` expression that doesn't
+require a ``Monad`` constraint. For example, in GHCi: ::
+
+    Prelude> :set -XApplicativeDo
+    Prelude> :t \m -> do { x <- m; return (not x) }
+    \m -> do { x <- m; return (not x) }
+      :: Functor f => f Bool -> f Bool
+
+This example only requires ``Functor``, because it is translated into ``(\x ->
+not x) <$> m``. A more complex example requires ``Applicative``, ::
+
+    Prelude> :t \m -> do { x <- m 'a'; y <- m 'b'; return (x || y) }
+    \m -> do { x <- m 'a'; y <- m 'b'; return (x || y) }
+      :: Applicative f => (Char -> f Bool) -> f Bool
+
+Here GHC has translated the expression into ::
+
+    (\x y -> x || y) <$> m 'a' <*> m 'b'
+
+It is possible to see the actual translation by using :ghc-flag:`-ddump-ds`, but be
+warned, the output is quite verbose.
+
+Note that if the expression can't be translated into uses of ``<$>``, ``<*>``
+only, then it will incur a ``Monad`` constraint as usual. This happens when
+there is a dependency on a value produced by an earlier statement in the
+``do``-block: ::
+
+    Prelude> :t \m -> do { x <- m True; y <- m x; return (x || y) }
+    \m -> do { x <- m True; y <- m x; return (x || y) }
+      :: Monad m => (Bool -> m Bool) -> m Bool
+
+Here, ``m x`` depends on the value of ``x`` produced by the first statement, so
+the expression cannot be translated using ``<*>``.
+
+In general, the rule for when a ``do`` statement incurs a ``Monad`` constraint
+is as follows. If the do-expression has the following form: ::
+
+    do p1 <- E1; ...; pn <- En; return E
+
+where none of the variables defined by ``p1...pn`` are mentioned in ``E1...En``,
+and ``p1...pn`` are all variables or lazy patterns,
+then the expression will only require ``Applicative``. Otherwise, the expression
+will require ``Monad``. The block may return a pure expression ``E`` depending
+upon the results ``p1...pn`` with either ``return`` or ``pure``.
+
+Note: the final statement must match one of these patterns exactly:
+
+- ``return E``
+- ``return $ E``
+- ``pure E``
+- ``pure $ E``
+
+otherwise GHC cannot recognise it as a ``return`` statement, and the
+transformation to use ``<$>`` that we saw above does not apply.  In
+particular, slight variations such as ``return . Just $ x`` or ``let x
+= e in return x`` would not be recognised.
+
+If the final statement is not of one of these forms, GHC falls back to
+standard ``do`` desugaring, and the expression will require a
+``Monad`` constraint.
+
+When the statements of a ``do`` expression have dependencies between
+them, and ``ApplicativeDo`` cannot infer an ``Applicative`` type, it
+uses a heuristic algorithm to try to use ``<*>`` as much as possible.
+This algorithm usually finds the best solution, but in rare complex
+cases it might miss an opportunity.  There is an algorithm that finds
+the optimal solution, provided as an option:
+
+.. ghc-flag:: -foptimal-applicative-do
+    :shortdesc: Use a slower but better algorithm for ApplicativeDo
+    :type: dynamic
+    :reverse: -fno-optimal-applicative-do
+    :category: optimization
+
+    :since: 8.0.1
+
+    Enables an alternative algorithm for choosing where to use ``<*>``
+    in conjunction with the ``ApplicativeDo`` language extension.
+    This algorithm always finds the optimal solution, but it is
+    expensive: ``O(n^3)``, so this option can lead to long compile
+    times when there are very large ``do`` expressions (over 100
+    statements).  The default ``ApplicativeDo`` algorithm is ``O(n^2)``.
+
+
+.. _applicative-do-strict:
+
+Strict patterns
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+
+A strict pattern match in a bind statement prevents
+``ApplicativeDo`` from transforming that statement to use
+``Applicative``.  This is because the transformation would change the
+semantics by making the expression lazier.
+
+For example, this code will require a ``Monad`` constraint::
+
+    > :t \m -> do { (x:xs) <- m; return x }
+    \m -> do { (x:xs) <- m; return x } :: Monad m => m [b] -> m b
+
+but making the pattern match lazy allows it to have a ``Functor`` constraint::
+
+    > :t \m -> do { ~(x:xs) <- m; return x }
+    \m -> do { ~(x:xs) <- m; return x } :: Functor f => f [b] -> f b
+
+A "strict pattern match" is any pattern match that can fail.  For
+example, ``()``, ``(x:xs)``, ``!z``, and ``C x`` are strict patterns,
+but ``x`` and ``~(1,2)`` are not.  For the purposes of
+``ApplicativeDo``, a pattern match against a ``newtype`` constructor
+is considered strict.
+
+When there's a strict pattern match in a sequence of statements,
+``ApplicativeDo`` places a ``>>=`` between that statement and the one
+that follows it.  The sequence may be transformed to use ``<*>``
+elsewhere, but the strict pattern match and the following statement
+will always be connected with ``>>=``, to retain the same strictness
+semantics as the standard do-notation.  If you don't want this, simply
+put a ``~`` on the pattern match to make it lazy.
+
+.. _applicative-do-pitfall:
+
+Things to watch out for
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Your code should just work as before when :extension:`ApplicativeDo` is enabled,
+provided you use conventional ``Applicative`` instances. However, if you define
+a ``Functor`` or ``Applicative`` instance using do-notation, then it will likely
+get turned into an infinite loop by GHC. For example, if you do this: ::
+
+    instance Functor MyType where
+        fmap f m = do x <- m; return (f x)
+
+Then applicative desugaring will turn it into ::
+
+    instance Functor MyType where
+        fmap f m = fmap (\x -> f x) m
+
+And the program will loop at runtime. Similarly, an ``Applicative`` instance
+like this ::
+
+    instance Applicative MyType where
+        pure = return
+        x <*> y = do f <- x; a <- y; return (f a)
+
+will result in an infinite loop when ``<*>`` is called.
+
+Just as you wouldn't define a ``Monad`` instance using the do-notation, you
+shouldn't define ``Functor`` or ``Applicative`` instance using do-notation (when
+using ``ApplicativeDo``) either. The correct way to define these instances in
+terms of ``Monad`` is to use the ``Monad`` operations directly, e.g. ::
+
+    instance Functor MyType where
+        fmap f m = m >>= return . f
+
+    instance Applicative MyType where
+        pure = return
+        (<*>) = ap
+
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/arrows.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/arrows.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f1e80f6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/arrows.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,412 @@
+.. _arrow-notation:
+
+Arrow notation
+==============
+
+.. extension:: Arrows
+    :shortdesc: Enable arrow notation extension
+
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Enable arrow notation.
+
+Arrows are a generalisation of monads introduced by John Hughes. For
+more details, see
+
+-  “Generalising Monads to Arrows”, John Hughes, in Science of Computer
+   Programming 37, pp. 67–111, May 2000. The paper that introduced arrows:
+   a friendly introduction, motivated with programming examples.
+
+-  “\ `A New Notation for
+   Arrows <http://www.soi.city.ac.uk/~ross/papers/notation.html>`__\ ”,
+   Ross Paterson, in ICFP, Sep 2001. Introduced the notation described
+   here.
+
+-  “\ `Arrows and
+   Computation <http://www.soi.city.ac.uk/~ross/papers/fop.html>`__\ ”,
+   Ross Paterson, in The Fun of Programming, Palgrave, 2003.
+
+-  “\ `Programming with
+   Arrows <http://www.cse.chalmers.se/~rjmh/afp-arrows.pdf>`__\ ”, John
+   Hughes, in 5th International Summer School on Advanced Functional
+   Programming, Lecture Notes in Computer Science vol. 3622, Springer,
+   2004. This paper includes another introduction to the notation, with
+   practical examples.
+
+-  “\ `Type and Translation Rules for Arrow Notation in
+   GHC <http://www.haskell.org/ghc/docs/papers/arrow-rules.pdf>`__\ ”,
+   Ross Paterson and Simon Peyton Jones, September 16, 2004. A terse
+   enumeration of the formal rules used (extracted from comments in the
+   source code).
+
+-  The arrows web page at
+   ``http://www.haskell.org/arrows/`` <http://www.haskell.org/arrows/>`__.
+
+With the :extension:`Arrows` extension, GHC supports the arrow notation described in
+the second of these papers, translating it using combinators from the
+:base-ref:`Control.Arrow.` module.
+What follows is a brief introduction to the notation; it won't make much
+sense unless you've read Hughes's paper.
+
+The extension adds a new kind of expression for defining arrows:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    exp10 ::= ...
+           |  proc apat -> cmd
+
+where ``proc`` is a new keyword. The variables of the pattern are bound
+in the body of the ``proc``-expression, which is a new sort of thing
+called a command. The syntax of commands is as follows:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    cmd   ::= exp10 -<  exp
+           |  exp10 -<< exp
+           |  cmd0
+
+with ⟨cmd⟩\ :sup:`0` up to ⟨cmd⟩\ :sup:`9` defined using infix operators
+as for expressions, and
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    cmd10 ::= \ apat ... apat -> cmd
+           |  let decls in cmd
+           |  if exp then cmd else cmd
+           |  case exp of { calts }
+           |  do { cstmt ; ... cstmt ; cmd }
+           |  fcmd
+
+    fcmd  ::= fcmd aexp
+           |  ( cmd )
+           |  (| aexp cmd ... cmd |)
+
+    cstmt ::= let decls
+           |  pat <- cmd
+           |  rec { cstmt ; ... cstmt [;] }
+           |  cmd
+
+where ⟨calts⟩ are like ⟨alts⟩ except that the bodies are commands
+instead of expressions.
+
+Commands produce values, but (like monadic computations) may yield more
+than one value, or none, and may do other things as well. For the most
+part, familiarity with monadic notation is a good guide to using
+commands. However the values of expressions, even monadic ones, are
+determined by the values of the variables they contain; this is not
+necessarily the case for commands.
+
+A simple example of the new notation is the expression ::
+
+    proc x -> f -< x+1
+
+We call this a procedure or arrow abstraction. As with a lambda
+expression, the variable ``x`` is a new variable bound within the
+``proc``-expression. It refers to the input to the arrow. In the above
+example, ``-<`` is not an identifier but a new reserved symbol used for
+building commands from an expression of arrow type and an expression to
+be fed as input to that arrow. (The weird look will make more sense
+later.) It may be read as analogue of application for arrows. The above
+example is equivalent to the Haskell expression ::
+
+    arr (\ x -> x+1) >>> f
+
+That would make no sense if the expression to the left of ``-<``
+involves the bound variable ``x``. More generally, the expression to the
+left of ``-<`` may not involve any local variable, i.e. a variable bound
+in the current arrow abstraction. For such a situation there is a
+variant ``-<<``, as in ::
+
+    proc x -> f x -<< x+1
+
+which is equivalent to ::
+
+    arr (\ x -> (f x, x+1)) >>> app
+
+so in this case the arrow must belong to the ``ArrowApply`` class. Such
+an arrow is equivalent to a monad, so if you're using this form you may
+find a monadic formulation more convenient.
+
+do-notation for commands
+------------------------
+
+Another form of command is a form of ``do``-notation. For example, you
+can write ::
+
+    proc x -> do
+            y <- f -< x+1
+            g -< 2*y
+            let z = x+y
+            t <- h -< x*z
+            returnA -< t+z
+
+You can read this much like ordinary ``do``-notation, but with commands
+in place of monadic expressions. The first line sends the value of
+``x+1`` as an input to the arrow ``f``, and matches its output against
+``y``. In the next line, the output is discarded. The arrow ``returnA``
+is defined in the :base-ref:`Control.Arrow.` module as ``arr id``. The above
+example is treated as an abbreviation for ::
+
+    arr (\ x -> (x, x)) >>>
+            first (arr (\ x -> x+1) >>> f) >>>
+            arr (\ (y, x) -> (y, (x, y))) >>>
+            first (arr (\ y -> 2*y) >>> g) >>>
+            arr snd >>>
+            arr (\ (x, y) -> let z = x+y in ((x, z), z)) >>>
+            first (arr (\ (x, z) -> x*z) >>> h) >>>
+            arr (\ (t, z) -> t+z) >>>
+            returnA
+
+Note that variables not used later in the composition are projected out.
+After simplification using rewrite rules (see :ref:`rewrite-rules`)
+defined in the :base-ref:`Control.Arrow.` module, this reduces to ::
+
+    arr (\ x -> (x+1, x)) >>>
+            first f >>>
+            arr (\ (y, x) -> (2*y, (x, y))) >>>
+            first g >>>
+            arr (\ (_, (x, y)) -> let z = x+y in (x*z, z)) >>>
+            first h >>>
+            arr (\ (t, z) -> t+z)
+
+which is what you might have written by hand. With arrow notation, GHC
+keeps track of all those tuples of variables for you.
+
+Note that although the above translation suggests that ``let``-bound
+variables like ``z`` must be monomorphic, the actual translation
+produces Core, so polymorphic variables are allowed.
+
+It's also possible to have mutually recursive bindings, using the new
+``rec`` keyword, as in the following example: ::
+
+    counter :: ArrowCircuit a => a Bool Int
+    counter = proc reset -> do
+            rec     output <- returnA -< if reset then 0 else next
+                    next <- delay 0 -< output+1
+            returnA -< output
+
+The translation of such forms uses the ``loop`` combinator, so the arrow
+concerned must belong to the ``ArrowLoop`` class.
+
+Conditional commands
+--------------------
+
+In the previous example, we used a conditional expression to construct
+the input for an arrow. Sometimes we want to conditionally execute
+different commands, as in ::
+
+    proc (x,y) ->
+            if f x y
+            then g -< x+1
+            else h -< y+2
+
+which is translated to ::
+
+    arr (\ (x,y) -> if f x y then Left x else Right y) >>>
+            (arr (\x -> x+1) >>> g) ||| (arr (\y -> y+2) >>> h)
+
+Since the translation uses ``|||``, the arrow concerned must belong to
+the ``ArrowChoice`` class.
+
+There are also ``case`` commands, like ::
+
+    case input of
+        [] -> f -< ()
+        [x] -> g -< x+1
+        x1:x2:xs -> do
+            y <- h -< (x1, x2)
+            ys <- k -< xs
+            returnA -< y:ys
+
+The syntax is the same as for ``case`` expressions, except that the
+bodies of the alternatives are commands rather than expressions. The
+translation is similar to that of ``if`` commands.
+
+Defining your own control structures
+------------------------------------
+
+As we're seen, arrow notation provides constructs, modelled on those for
+expressions, for sequencing, value recursion and conditionals. But
+suitable combinators, which you can define in ordinary Haskell, may also
+be used to build new commands out of existing ones. The basic idea is
+that a command defines an arrow from environments to values. These
+environments assign values to the free local variables of the command.
+Thus combinators that produce arrows from arrows may also be used to
+build commands from commands. For example, the ``ArrowPlus`` class
+includes a combinator ::
+
+    ArrowPlus a => (<+>) :: a b c -> a b c -> a b c
+
+so we can use it to build commands: ::
+
+    expr' = proc x -> do
+                    returnA -< x
+            <+> do
+                    symbol Plus -< ()
+                    y <- term -< ()
+                    expr' -< x + y
+            <+> do
+                    symbol Minus -< ()
+                    y <- term -< ()
+                    expr' -< x - y
+
+(The ``do`` on the first line is needed to prevent the first ``<+> ...``
+from being interpreted as part of the expression on the previous line.)
+This is equivalent to ::
+
+    expr' = (proc x -> returnA -< x)
+            <+> (proc x -> do
+                    symbol Plus -< ()
+                    y <- term -< ()
+                    expr' -< x + y)
+            <+> (proc x -> do
+                    symbol Minus -< ()
+                    y <- term -< ()
+                    expr' -< x - y)
+
+We are actually using ``<+>`` here with the more specific type ::
+
+    ArrowPlus a => (<+>) :: a (e,()) c -> a (e,()) c -> a (e,()) c
+
+It is essential that this operator be polymorphic in ``e`` (representing
+the environment input to the command and thence to its subcommands) and
+satisfy the corresponding naturality property ::
+
+    arr (first k) >>> (f <+> g) = (arr (first k) >>> f) <+> (arr (first k) >>> g)
+
+at least for strict ``k``. (This should be automatic if you're not using
+``seq``.) This ensures that environments seen by the subcommands are
+environments of the whole command, and also allows the translation to
+safely trim these environments. (The second component of the input pairs
+can contain unnamed input values, as described in the next section.) The
+operator must also not use any variable defined within the current arrow
+abstraction.
+
+We could define our own operator ::
+
+    untilA :: ArrowChoice a => a (e,s) () -> a (e,s) Bool -> a (e,s) ()
+    untilA body cond = proc x -> do
+            b <- cond -< x
+            if b then returnA -< ()
+            else do
+                    body -< x
+                    untilA body cond -< x
+
+and use it in the same way. Of course this infix syntax only makes sense
+for binary operators; there is also a more general syntax involving
+special brackets: ::
+
+    proc x -> do
+            y <- f -< x+1
+            (|untilA (increment -< x+y) (within 0.5 -< x)|)
+
+Primitive constructs
+--------------------
+
+Some operators will need to pass additional inputs to their subcommands.
+For example, in an arrow type supporting exceptions, the operator that
+attaches an exception handler will wish to pass the exception that
+occurred to the handler. Such an operator might have a type ::
+
+    handleA :: ... => a (e,s) c -> a (e,(Ex,s)) c -> a (e,s) c
+
+where ``Ex`` is the type of exceptions handled. You could then use this
+with arrow notation by writing a command ::
+
+    body `handleA` \ ex -> handler
+
+so that if an exception is raised in the command ``body``, the variable
+``ex`` is bound to the value of the exception and the command
+``handler``, which typically refers to ``ex``, is entered. Though the
+syntax here looks like a functional lambda, we are talking about
+commands, and something different is going on. The input to the arrow
+represented by a command consists of values for the free local variables
+in the command, plus a stack of anonymous values. In all the prior
+examples, we made no assumptions about this stack. In the second
+argument to ``handleA``, the value of the exception has been added to
+the stack input to the handler. The command form of lambda merely gives
+this value a name.
+
+More concretely, the input to a command consists of a pair of an
+environment and a stack. Each value on the stack is paired with the
+remainder of the stack, with an empty stack being ``()``. So operators
+like ``handleA`` that pass extra inputs to their subcommands can be
+designed for use with the notation by placing the values on the stack
+paired with the environment in this way. More precisely, the type of
+each argument of the operator (and its result) should have the form ::
+
+    a (e, (t1, ... (tn, ())...)) t
+
+where ⟨e⟩ is a polymorphic variable (representing the environment) and
+⟨ti⟩ are the types of the values on the stack, with ⟨t1⟩ being the
+"top". The polymorphic variable ⟨e⟩ must not occur in ⟨a⟩, ⟨ti⟩ or ⟨t⟩.
+However the arrows involved need not be the same. Here are some more
+examples of suitable operators: ::
+
+    bracketA :: ... => a (e,s) b -> a (e,(b,s)) c -> a (e,(c,s)) d -> a (e,s) d
+    runReader :: ... => a (e,s) c -> a' (e,(State,s)) c
+    runState :: ... => a (e,s) c -> a' (e,(State,s)) (c,State)
+
+We can supply the extra input required by commands built with the last
+two by applying them to ordinary expressions, as in ::
+
+    proc x -> do
+            s <- ...
+            (|runReader (do { ... })|) s
+
+which adds ``s`` to the stack of inputs to the command built using
+``runReader``.
+
+The command versions of lambda abstraction and application are analogous
+to the expression versions. In particular, the beta and eta rules
+describe equivalences of commands. These three features (operators,
+lambda abstraction and application) are the core of the notation;
+everything else can be built using them, though the results would be
+somewhat clumsy. For example, we could simulate ``do``\-notation by
+defining ::
+
+    bind :: Arrow a => a (e,s) b -> a (e,(b,s)) c -> a (e,s) c
+    u `bind` f = returnA &&& u >>> f
+
+    bind_ :: Arrow a => a (e,s) b -> a (e,s) c -> a (e,s) c
+    u `bind_` f = u `bind` (arr fst >>> f)
+
+We could simulate ``if`` by defining ::
+
+    cond :: ArrowChoice a => a (e,s) b -> a (e,s) b -> a (e,(Bool,s)) b
+    cond f g = arr (\ (e,(b,s)) -> if b then Left (e,s) else Right (e,s)) >>> f ||| g
+
+Differences with the paper
+--------------------------
+
+-  Instead of a single form of arrow application (arrow tail) with two
+   translations, the implementation provides two forms ``-<``
+   (first-order) and ``-<<`` (higher-order).
+
+-  User-defined operators are flagged with banana brackets instead of a
+   new ``form`` keyword.
+
+-  In the paper and the previous implementation, values on the stack
+   were paired to the right of the environment in a single argument, but
+   now the environment and stack are separate arguments.
+
+Portability
+-----------
+
+Although only GHC implements arrow notation directly, there is also a
+preprocessor (available from the `arrows web
+page <http://www.haskell.org/arrows/>`__) that translates arrow notation
+into Haskell 98 for use with other Haskell systems. You would still want
+to check arrow programs with GHC; tracing type errors in the
+preprocessor output is not easy. Modules intended for both GHC and the
+preprocessor must observe some additional restrictions:
+
+-  The module must import :base-ref:`Control.Arrow.`.
+
+-  The preprocessor cannot cope with other Haskell extensions. These
+   would have to go in separate modules.
+
+-  Because the preprocessor targets Haskell (rather than Core),
+   ``let``\-bound variables are monomorphic.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/assert.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/assert.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..836443f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/assert.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,53 @@
+.. _assertions:
+
+Assertions
+==========
+
+.. index::
+   single: Assertions
+
+If you want to make use of assertions in your standard Haskell code, you
+could define a function like the following: ::
+
+    assert :: Bool -> a -> a
+    assert False x = error "assertion failed!"
+    assert _     x = x
+
+which works, but gives you back a less than useful error message -- an
+assertion failed, but which and where?
+
+One way out is to define an extended ``assert`` function which also
+takes a descriptive string to include in the error message and perhaps
+combine this with the use of a pre-processor which inserts the source
+location where ``assert`` was used.
+
+GHC offers a helping hand here, doing all of this for you. For every use
+of ``assert`` in the user's source: ::
+
+    kelvinToC :: Double -> Double
+    kelvinToC k = assert (k >= 0.0) (k-273.15)
+
+GHC will rewrite this to also include the source location where the
+assertion was made, ::
+
+    assert pred val ==> assertError "Main.hs|15" pred val
+
+The rewrite is only performed by the compiler when it spots applications
+of ``Control.Exception.assert``, so you can still define and use your
+own versions of ``assert``, should you so wish. If not, import
+``Control.Exception`` to make use ``assert`` in your code.
+
+.. index::
+   pair: assertions; disabling
+
+GHC ignores assertions when optimisation is turned on with the
+:ghc-flag:`-O` flag. That is, expressions of the form ``assert pred e``
+will be rewritten to ``e``. You can also disable assertions using the
+:ghc-flag:`-fignore-asserts` option. The option
+:ghc-flag:`-fno-ignore-asserts <-fignore-asserts>`
+allows enabling assertions even when optimisation is turned on.
+
+Assertion failures can be caught, see the documentation for the
+:base-ref:`Control.Exception` library for the details.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/binary_literals.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/binary_literals.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d49c64e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/binary_literals.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+.. _binary-literals:
+
+Binary integer literals
+-----------------------
+
+.. extension:: BinaryLiterals
+    :shortdesc: Enable support for binary literals.
+
+    :since: 7.10.1
+
+    Allow the use of binary notation in integer literals.
+
+Haskell 2010 and Haskell 98 allows for integer literals to be given in
+decimal, octal (prefixed by ``0o`` or ``0O``), or hexadecimal notation
+(prefixed by ``0x`` or ``0X``).
+
+The language extension :extension:`BinaryLiterals` adds support for expressing
+integer literals in binary notation with the prefix ``0b`` or ``0B``. For
+instance, the binary integer literal ``0b11001001`` will be desugared into
+``fromInteger 201`` when :extension:`BinaryLiterals` is enabled.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/bindings.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/bindings.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a57331e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/bindings.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+Bindings and generalisation
+===========================
+
+.. toctree::
+    :maxdepth: 1
+
+    monomorphism
+    let_generalisation
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/block_arguments.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/block_arguments.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1682dda
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/block_arguments.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,103 @@
+.. _block-arguments:
+
+More liberal syntax for function arguments
+------------------------------------------
+
+.. extension:: BlockArguments
+    :shortdesc: Allow ``do`` blocks and other constructs as function arguments.
+
+    :since: 8.6.1
+
+    Allow ``do`` expressions, lambda expressions, etc. to be directly used as
+    a function argument.
+
+In Haskell 2010, certain kinds of expressions can be used without parentheses
+as an argument to an operator, but not as an argument to a function.
+They include ``do``, lambda, ``if``, ``case``, and ``let``
+expressions. Some GHC extensions also define language constructs of this type:
+``mdo`` (:ref:`recursive-do-notation`), ``\case`` (:ref:`lambda-case`), and
+``proc`` (:ref:`arrow-notation`).
+
+The :extension:`BlockArguments` extension allows these constructs to be directly
+used as a function argument. For example::
+
+    when (x > 0) do
+      print x
+      exitFailure
+
+will be parsed as::
+
+    when (x > 0) (do
+      print x
+      exitFailure)
+
+and
+
+::
+
+    withForeignPtr fptr \ptr -> c_memcpy buf ptr size
+
+will be parsed as::
+
+    withForeignPtr fptr (\ptr -> c_memcpy buf ptr size)
+
+Changes to the grammar
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The Haskell report `defines
+<https://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/haskell2010/haskellch3.html#x8-220003>`_
+the ``lexp`` nonterminal thus (``*`` indicates a rule of interest)
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    lexp  →  \ apat1 … apatn -> exp            (lambda abstraction, n ≥ 1)  *
+          |  let decls in exp                  (let expression)             *
+          |  if exp [;] then exp [;] else exp  (conditional)                *
+          |  case exp of { alts }              (case expression)            *
+          |  do { stmts }                      (do expression)              *
+          |  fexp
+
+    fexp  →  [fexp] aexp                       (function application)
+
+    aexp  →  qvar                              (variable)
+          |  gcon                              (general constructor)
+          |  literal
+          |  ( exp )                           (parenthesized expression)
+          |  qcon { fbind1 … fbindn }          (labeled construction)
+          |  aexp { fbind1 … fbindn }          (labelled update)
+          |  …
+
+The :extension:`BlockArguments` extension moves these production rules under
+``aexp``
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    lexp  →  fexp
+
+    fexp  →  [fexp] aexp                       (function application)
+
+    aexp  →  qvar                              (variable)
+          |  gcon                              (general constructor)
+          |  literal
+          |  ( exp )                           (parenthesized expression)
+          |  qcon { fbind1 … fbindn }          (labeled construction)
+          |  aexp { fbind1 … fbindn }          (labelled update)
+          |  \ apat1 … apatn -> exp            (lambda abstraction, n ≥ 1)  *
+          |  let decls in exp                  (let expression)             *
+          |  if exp [;] then exp [;] else exp  (conditional)                *
+          |  case exp of { alts }              (case expression)            *
+          |  do { stmts }                      (do expression)              *
+          |  …
+
+Now the ``lexp`` nonterminal is redundant and can be dropped from the grammar.
+
+Note that this change relies on an existing meta-rule to resolve ambiguities:
+
+    The grammar is ambiguous regarding the extent of lambda abstractions, let
+    expressions, and conditionals. The ambiguity is resolved by the meta-rule
+    that each of these constructs extends as far to the right as possible.
+
+For example, ``f \a -> a b`` will be parsed as ``f (\a -> a b)``, not as ``f
+(\a -> a) b``.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/callstack.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/callstack.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f4fbf9b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/callstack.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,146 @@
+.. _hascallstack:
+
+HasCallStack
+============
+
+``GHC.Stack.HasCallStack`` is a lightweight method of obtaining a
+partial call-stack at any point in the program.
+
+A function can request its call-site with the ``HasCallStack`` constraint
+and access it as a Haskell value by using ``callStack``.
+
+One can then use functions from ``GHC.Stack`` to inspect or pretty
+print (as is done in ``f`` below) the call stack.
+
+   f :: HasCallStack => IO ()
+   f = putStrLn (prettyCallStack callStack)
+
+   g :: HasCallStack => IO ()
+   g = f
+
+Evaluating ``f`` directly shows a call stack with a single entry,
+while evaluating ``g``, which also requests its call-site, shows
+two entries, one for each computation "annotated" with
+``HasCallStack``.
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   ghci> f
+   CallStack (from HasCallStack):
+     f, called at <interactive>:19:1 in interactive:Ghci1
+   ghci> g
+   CallStack (from HasCallStack):
+     f, called at <interactive>:17:5 in main:Main
+     g, called at <interactive>:20:1 in interactive:Ghci2
+
+The ``error`` function from the Prelude supports printing the call stack that
+led to the error in addition to the usual error message:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   ghci> error "bad"
+   *** Exception: bad
+   CallStack (from HasCallStack):
+     error, called at <interactive>:25:1 in interactive:Ghci5
+
+The call stack here consists of a single entry, pinpointing the source
+of the call to ``error``. However, by annotating several computations
+with ``HasCallStack``, figuring out the exact circumstances and sequences
+of calls that lead to a call to ``error`` becomes a lot easier, as demonstrated
+with the simple example below. ::
+
+   f :: HasCallStack => IO ()
+   f = error "bad bad bad"
+
+   g :: HasCallStack => IO ()
+   g = f
+
+   h :: HasCallStack => IO ()
+   h = g
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   ghci> h
+   *** Exception: bad bad bad
+   CallStack (from HasCallStack):
+     error, called at call-stack.hs:4:5 in main:Main
+     f, called at call-stack.hs:7:5 in main:Main
+     g, called at call-stack.hs:10:5 in main:Main
+     h, called at <interactive>:28:1 in interactive:Ghci1
+
+The ``CallStack`` will only extend as far as the types allow it, for
+example ::
+
+   myHead :: HasCallStack => [a] -> a
+   myHead []     = errorWithCallStack "empty"
+   myHead (x:xs) = x
+
+   bad :: Int
+   bad = myHead []
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   ghci> bad
+   *** Exception: empty
+   CallStack (from HasCallStack):
+     errorWithCallStack, called at Bad.hs:8:15 in main:Bad
+     myHead, called at Bad.hs:12:7 in main:Bad
+
+includes the call-site of ``errorWithCallStack`` in ``myHead``, and of
+``myHead`` in ``bad``, but not the call-site of ``bad`` at the GHCi
+prompt.
+
+GHC solves ``HasCallStack`` constraints in two steps:
+
+1. If there is a ``CallStack`` in scope -- i.e. the enclosing definition
+   has a ``HasCallStack`` constraint -- GHC will push the new call-site
+   onto the existing ``CallStack``.
+
+2. Otherwise GHC will solve the ``HasCallStack`` constraint for the
+   singleton ``CallStack`` containing just the current call-site.
+
+Importantly, GHC will **never** infer a ``HasCallStack`` constraint,
+you must request it explicitly.
+
+``CallStack`` is kept abstract, but GHC provides a function ::
+
+   getCallStack :: CallStack -> [(String, SrcLoc)]
+
+to access the individual call-sites in the stack. The ``String`` is the
+name of the function that was called, and the ``SrcLoc`` provides the
+package, module, and file name, as well as the line and column numbers.
+
+``GHC.Stack`` additionally exports a function ``withFrozenCallStack`` that
+allows users to freeze the current ``CallStack``, preventing any future push
+operations from having an effect. This can be used by library authors
+to prevent ``CallStack``\s from exposing unnecessary implementation
+details. Consider the ``myHead`` example above, the ``errorWithCallStack`` line in
+the printed stack is not particularly enlightening, so we might choose
+to suppress it by freezing the ``CallStack`` that we pass to ``errorWithCallStack``. ::
+
+   myHead :: HasCallStack => [a] -> a
+   myHead []     = withFrozenCallStack (errorWithCallStack "empty")
+   myHead (x:xs) = x
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   ghci> myHead []
+   *** Exception: empty
+   CallStack (from HasCallStack):
+     myHead, called at Bad.hs:12:7 in main:Bad
+
+**NOTE**: The intrepid user may notice that ``HasCallStack`` is just an
+alias for an implicit parameter ``?callStack :: CallStack``. This is an
+implementation detail and **should not** be considered part of the
+``CallStack`` API, we may decide to change the implementation in the
+future.
+
+Compared with other sources of stack traces
+-------------------------------------------
+
+``HasCallStack`` does not interact with the RTS and does not require
+compilation with ``-prof``. On the other hand, as the ``CallStack`` is
+built up explicitly via the ``HasCallStack`` constraints, it will
+generally not contain as much information as the simulated call-stacks
+maintained by the RTS.
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/parallel.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/concurrent.rst
index 6c2a7ae..027c2b9 100644
--- a/docs/users_guide/parallel.rst
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/concurrent.rst
@@ -1,28 +1,6 @@
-.. _lang-parallel:
-
 Concurrent and Parallel Haskell
 ===============================
 
-.. index::
-   single: parallelism
-   single: concurrency
-
-GHC implements some major extensions to Haskell to support concurrent
-and parallel programming. Let us first establish terminology:
-
--  *Parallelism* means running a Haskell program on multiple processors,
-   with the goal of improving performance. Ideally, this should be done
-   invisibly, and with no semantic changes.
-
--  *Concurrency* means implementing a program by using multiple
-   I/O-performing threads. While a concurrent Haskell program *can* run
-   on a parallel machine, the primary goal of using concurrency is not
-   to gain performance, but rather because that is the simplest and most
-   direct way to write the program. Since the threads perform I/O, the
-   semantics of the program is necessarily non-deterministic.
-
-GHC supports both concurrency and parallelism.
-
 .. _concurrent-haskell:
 
 Concurrent Haskell
@@ -48,27 +26,6 @@ constructs; rather, it appears simply as a library,
 -  Support for bound threads; see the paper `Extending the FFI with
    concurrency <http://community.haskell.org/~simonmar/papers/conc-ffi.pdf>`__.
 
-Software Transactional Memory
------------------------------
-
-GHC now supports a new way to coordinate the activities of Concurrent
-Haskell threads, called Software Transactional Memory (STM). The `STM
-papers <https://wiki.haskell.org/Research_papers/Parallelism_and_concurrency#Lock_free_data_structures_and_transactional_memory>`__
-are an excellent introduction to what STM is, and how to use it.
-
-The main library you need to use is the `stm
-library <http://hackage.haskell.org/package/stm>`__. The main features
-supported are these:
-
--  Atomic blocks.
-
--  Transactional variables.
-
--  Operations for composing transactions: ``retry``, and ``orElse``.
-
--  Data invariants.
-
-All these features are described in the papers mentioned earlier.
 
 Parallel Haskell
 ----------------
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/constrained_class_methods.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/constrained_class_methods.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..88d587e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/constrained_class_methods.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+.. _class-method-types:
+
+Constrained class method types
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. extension:: ConstrainedClassMethods
+    :shortdesc: Enable constrained class methods.
+
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Allows the definition of further constraints on individual class methods.
+
+Haskell 98 prohibits class method types to mention constraints on the
+class type variable, thus: ::
+
+      class Seq s a where
+        fromList :: [a] -> s a
+        elem     :: Eq a => a -> s a -> Bool
+
+The type of ``elem`` is illegal in Haskell 98, because it contains the
+constraint ``Eq a``, which constrains only the class type variable (in
+this case ``a``).
+this case ``a``).  More precisely, a constraint in a class method signature is rejected if
+
+- The constraint mentions at least one type variable.  So this is allowed: ::
+
+     class C a where
+       op1 :: HasCallStack => a -> a
+       op2 :: (?x::Int) => Int -> a
+
+- All of the type variables mentioned are bound by the class declaration, and none is locally quantified.  Examples: ::
+
+     class C a where
+       op3 :: Eq a => a -> a    -- Rejected: constrains class variable only
+       op4 :: D b => a -> b     -- Accepted: constrains a locally-quantified variable `b`
+       op5 :: D (a,b) => a -> b -- Accepted: constrains a locally-quantified variable `b`
+
+
+GHC lifts this restriction with language extension
+:extension:`ConstrainedClassMethods`. The restriction is a pretty stupid one in
+the first place, so :extension:`ConstrainedClassMethods` is implied by
+:extension:`MultiParamTypeClasses`.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/constraint_kind.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/constraint_kind.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9077e25
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/constraint_kind.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,81 @@
+.. _constraint-kind:
+
+The ``Constraint`` kind
+-----------------------
+
+.. extension:: ConstraintKinds
+    :shortdesc: Enable a kind of constraints.
+
+    :since: 7.4.1
+
+    Allow types of kind ``Constraint`` to be used in contexts.
+
+Normally, *constraints* (which appear in types to the left of the ``=>``
+arrow) have a very restricted syntax. They can only be:
+
+-  Class constraints, e.g. ``Show a``
+
+-  :ghc-flag:`Implicit parameter <-XImplicitParams>` constraints, e.g.
+   ``?x::Int`` (with the :extension:`ImplicitParams` extension)
+
+-  :ref:`Equality constraints <equality-constraints>`, e.g. ``a ~ Int``
+   (with the :extension:`TypeFamilies` or :extension:`GADTs` extensions)
+
+With the :extension:`ConstraintKinds` extension, GHC becomes more liberal in what it
+accepts as constraints in your program. To be precise, with this flag
+any *type* of the new kind ``Constraint`` can be used as a constraint.
+The following things have kind ``Constraint``:
+
+-  Anything which is already valid as a constraint without the flag:
+   saturated applications to type classes, implicit parameter and
+   equality constraints.
+
+- Tuples, all of whose component types have kind ``Constraint``. So for example
+  the type ``(Show a, Ord a)`` is of kind ``Constraint``.
+
+-  Anything whose form is not yet known, but the user has declared to
+   have kind ``Constraint`` (for which they need to import it from
+   ``Data.Kind``). So for example
+   ``type Foo (f :: Type -> Constraint) = forall b. f b => b -> b``
+   is allowed, as well as examples involving type families: ::
+
+       type family Typ a b :: Constraint
+       type instance Typ Int  b = Show b
+       type instance Typ Bool b = Num b
+
+       func :: Typ a b => a -> b -> b
+       func = ...
+
+Note that because constraints are just handled as types of a particular
+kind, this extension allows type constraint synonyms: ::
+
+    type Stringy a = (Read a, Show a)
+    foo :: Stringy a => a -> (String, String -> a)
+    foo x = (show x, read)
+
+Presently, only standard constraints, tuples and type synonyms for those
+two sorts of constraint are permitted in instance contexts and
+superclasses (without extra flags). The reason is that permitting more
+general constraints can cause type checking to loop, as it would with
+these two programs:
+
+::
+
+    type family Clsish u a
+    type instance Clsish () a = Cls a
+    class Clsish () a => Cls a where
+
+::
+
+    class OkCls a where
+
+    type family OkClsish u a
+    type instance OkClsish () a = OkCls a
+    instance OkClsish () a => OkCls a where
+
+You may write programs that use exotic sorts of constraints in instance
+contexts and superclasses, but to do so you must use
+:extension:`UndecidableInstances` to signal that you don't mind if the type
+checker fails to terminate.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/constraints.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/constraints.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6011dd6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/constraints.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+Constraints
+===========
+
+.. toctree::
+    :maxdepth: 1
+
+    equality_constraints
+    constraint_kind
+    quantified_constraints
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/control.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/control.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0a325ef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/control.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,78 @@
+.. _options-language:
+
+Controlling extensions
+----------------------
+
+.. index::
+   single: language; option
+   single: options; language
+   single: extensions; options controlling
+
+Language extensions can be controlled (i.e. allowed or not) in two ways:
+
+-  Every language extension can be switched on by a command-line flag
+   "``-X...``" (e.g. ``-XTemplateHaskell``), and switched off by the
+   flag "``-XNo...``"; (e.g. ``-XNoTemplateHaskell``).
+
+-  Language extensions can also be enabled using the ``LANGUAGE`` pragma, thus
+   ``{-# LANGUAGE TemplateHaskell #-}`` (see :ref:`language-pragma`).
+
+.. extension:: Haskell2010
+    :shortdesc: Use the Haskell 2010 language variant.
+
+    Compile Haskell 2010 language variant. Enables the
+    following language extensions:
+
+    .. hlist::
+
+     * :extension:`ImplicitPrelude`
+     * :extension:`StarIsType`
+     * :extension:`CUSKs`
+     * :extension:`MonomorphismRestriction`
+     * :extension:`DatatypeContexts`
+     * :extension:`TraditionalRecordSyntax`
+     * :extension:`EmptyDataDecls`
+     * :extension:`ForeignFunctionInterface`
+     * :extension:`PatternGuards`
+     * :extension:`DoAndIfThenElse`
+     * :extension:`RelaxedPolyRec`
+
+
+.. extension:: Haskell98
+    :shortdesc: Use the Haskell 2010 language variant.
+
+    Compile using Haskell 98 language variant. Enables the
+    following language extensions:
+
+    .. hlist::
+
+     * :extension:`ImplicitPrelude`
+     * :extension:`StarIsType`
+     * :extension:`CUSKs`
+     * :extension:`MonomorphismRestriction`
+     * :extension:`NPlusKPatterns`
+     * :extension:`DatatypeContexts`
+     * :extension:`TraditionalRecordSyntax`
+     * :extension:`NondecreasingIndentation`
+
+
+
+Although not recommended, the deprecated :ghc-flag:`-fglasgow-exts` flag enables
+a large swath of the extensions supported by GHC at once.
+
+.. ghc-flag:: -fglasgow-exts
+    :shortdesc: Deprecated. Enable most language extensions;
+        see :ref:`options-language` for exactly which ones.
+    :type: dynamic
+    :reverse: -fno-glasgow-exts
+    :category: misc
+
+    The flag ``-fglasgow-exts`` is equivalent to enabling the following extensions:
+
+    .. include:: ../what_glasgow_exts_does.rst
+
+    Enabling these options is the *only* effect of ``-fglasgow-exts``. We are trying
+    to move away from this portmanteau flag, and towards enabling features
+    individually.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/data_kinds.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/data_kinds.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7105b1a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/data_kinds.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,210 @@
+.. _promotion:
+
+Datatype promotion
+==================
+
+.. extension:: DataKinds
+    :shortdesc: Enable datatype promotion.
+
+    :since: 7.4.1
+
+    Allow promotion of data types to kind level.
+
+This section describes *data type promotion*, an extension to the kind
+system that complements kind polymorphism. It is enabled by
+:extension:`DataKinds`, and described in more detail in the paper `Giving
+Haskell a Promotion <http://dreixel.net/research/pdf/ghp.pdf>`__, which
+appeared at TLDI 2012.
+
+Motivation
+----------
+
+Standard Haskell has a rich type language. Types classify terms and
+serve to avoid many common programming mistakes. The kind language,
+however, is relatively simple, distinguishing only regular types (kind
+``Type``) and type constructors (e.g. kind ``Type -> Type -> Type``).
+In particular when using advanced type
+system features, such as type families (:ref:`type-families`) or GADTs
+(:ref:`gadt`), this simple kind system is insufficient, and fails to
+prevent simple errors. Consider the example of type-level natural
+numbers, and length-indexed vectors: ::
+
+    data Ze
+    data Su n
+
+    data Vec :: Type -> Type -> Type where
+      Nil  :: Vec a Ze
+      Cons :: a -> Vec a n -> Vec a (Su n)
+
+The kind of ``Vec`` is ``Type -> Type -> Type``. This means that, e.g.,
+``Vec Int Char`` is a well-kinded type, even though this is not what we
+intend when defining length-indexed vectors.
+
+With :extension:`DataKinds`, the example above can then be rewritten to: ::
+
+    data Nat = Ze | Su Nat
+
+    data Vec :: Type -> Nat -> Type where
+      Nil  :: Vec a 'Ze
+      Cons :: a -> Vec a n -> Vec a ('Su n)
+
+With the improved kind of ``Vec``, things like ``Vec Int Char`` are now
+ill-kinded, and GHC will report an error.
+
+Overview
+--------
+
+With :extension:`DataKinds`, GHC automatically promotes every datatype
+to be a kind and its (value) constructors to be type constructors. The
+following types ::
+
+    data Nat = Zero | Succ Nat
+
+    data List a = Nil | Cons a (List a)
+
+    data Pair a b = Pair a b
+
+    data Sum a b = L a | R b
+
+give rise to the following kinds and type constructors (where promoted
+constructors are prefixed by a tick ``'``): ::
+
+    Nat :: Type
+    'Zero :: Nat
+    'Succ :: Nat -> Nat
+
+    List :: Type -> Type
+    'Nil  :: forall k. List k
+    'Cons :: forall k. k -> List k -> List k
+
+    Pair  :: Type -> Type -> Type
+    'Pair :: forall k1 k2. k1 -> k2 -> Pair k1 k2
+
+    Sum :: Type -> Type -> Type
+    'L :: k1 -> Sum k1 k2
+    'R :: k2 -> Sum k1 k2
+
+Virtually all data constructors, even those with rich kinds, can be promoted.
+There are only a couple of exceptions to this rule:
+
+-  Data family instance constructors cannot be promoted at the moment. GHC's
+   type theory just isn’t up to the task of promoting data families, which
+   requires full dependent types.
+
+-  Data constructors with contexts that contain non-equality constraints cannot
+   be promoted. For example: ::
+
+     data Foo :: Type -> Type where
+       MkFoo1 :: a ~ Int         => Foo a    -- promotable
+       MkFoo2 :: a ~~ Int        => Foo a    -- promotable
+       MkFoo3 :: Show a          => Foo a    -- not promotable
+
+   ``MkFoo1`` and ``MkFoo2`` can be promoted, since their contexts
+   only involve equality-oriented constraints. However, ``MkFoo3``'s context
+   contains a non-equality constraint ``Show a``, and thus cannot be promoted.
+
+.. _promotion-syntax:
+
+Distinguishing between types and constructors
+---------------------------------------------
+
+In the examples above, all promoted constructors are prefixed with a single
+quote mark ``'``. This mark tells GHC to look in the data constructor namespace
+for a name, not the type (constructor) namespace. Consider ::
+
+    data P = MkP    -- 1
+
+    data Prom = P   -- 2
+
+We can thus distinguish the type ``P`` (which has a constructor ``MkP``)
+from the promoted data constructor ``'P`` (of kind ``Prom``).
+
+As a convenience, GHC allows you to omit the quote mark when the name is
+unambiguous. However, our experience has shown that the quote mark helps
+to make code more readable and less error-prone. GHC thus supports
+:ghc-flag:`-Wunticked-promoted-constructors` that will warn you if you
+use a promoted data constructor without a preceding quote mark.
+
+Just as in the case of Template Haskell (:ref:`th-syntax`), GHC gets
+confused if you put a quote mark before a data constructor whose second
+character is a quote mark. In this case, just put a space between the
+promotion quote and the data constructor: ::
+
+  data T = A'
+  type S = 'A'   -- ERROR: looks like a character
+  type R = ' A'  -- OK: promoted `A'`
+
+.. _promoted-lists-and-tuples:
+
+Promoted list and tuple types
+-----------------------------
+
+With :extension:`DataKinds`, Haskell's list and tuple types are natively
+promoted to kinds, and enjoy the same convenient syntax at the type
+level, albeit prefixed with a quote: ::
+
+    data HList :: [Type] -> Type where
+      HNil  :: HList '[]
+      HCons :: a -> HList t -> HList (a ': t)
+
+    data Tuple :: (Type,Type) -> Type where
+      Tuple :: a -> b -> Tuple '(a,b)
+
+    foo0 :: HList '[]
+    foo0 = HNil
+
+    foo1 :: HList '[Int]
+    foo1 = HCons (3::Int) HNil
+
+    foo2 :: HList [Int, Bool]
+    foo2 = ...
+
+For type-level lists of *two or more elements*, such as the signature of
+``foo2`` above, the quote may be omitted because the meaning is unambiguous. But
+for lists of one or zero elements (as in ``foo0`` and ``foo1``), the quote is
+required, because the types ``[]`` and ``[Int]`` have existing meanings in
+Haskell.
+
+.. note::
+    The declaration for ``HCons`` also requires :extension:`TypeOperators`
+    because of infix type operator ``(':)``
+
+
+.. _promotion-existentials:
+
+Promoting existential data constructors
+---------------------------------------
+
+Note that we do promote existential data constructors that are otherwise
+suitable. For example, consider the following: ::
+
+    data Ex :: Type where
+      MkEx :: forall a. a -> Ex
+
+Both the type ``Ex`` and the data constructor ``MkEx`` get promoted,
+with the polymorphic kind ``'MkEx :: forall k. k -> Ex``. Somewhat
+surprisingly, you can write a type family to extract the member of a
+type-level existential: ::
+
+    type family UnEx (ex :: Ex) :: k
+    type instance UnEx (MkEx x) = x
+
+At first blush, ``UnEx`` seems poorly-kinded. The return kind ``k`` is
+not mentioned in the arguments, and thus it would seem that an instance
+would have to return a member of ``k`` *for any* ``k``. However, this is
+not the case. The type family ``UnEx`` is a kind-indexed type family.
+The return kind ``k`` is an implicit parameter to ``UnEx``. The
+elaborated definitions are as follows (where implicit parameters are
+denoted by braces): ::
+
+    type family UnEx {k :: Type} (ex :: Ex) :: k
+    type instance UnEx {k} (MkEx @k x) = x
+
+Thus, the instance triggers only when the implicit parameter to ``UnEx``
+matches the implicit parameter to ``MkEx``. Because ``k`` is actually a
+parameter to ``UnEx``, the kind is not escaping the existential, and the
+above code is valid.
+
+See also :ghc-ticket:`7347`.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/datatype_contexts.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/datatype_contexts.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..240b8a3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/datatype_contexts.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+.. _datatype-contexts:
+
+Data type contexts
+------------------
+
+.. extension:: DatatypeContexts
+    :shortdesc: Allow contexts on ``data`` types.
+
+    :since: 7.0.1
+
+    Allow contexts on ``data`` types.
+
+Haskell allows datatypes to be given contexts, e.g. ::
+
+    data Eq a => Set a = NilSet | ConsSet a (Set a)
+
+give constructors with types: ::
+
+    NilSet :: Set a
+    ConsSet :: Eq a => a -> Set a -> Set a
+
+This is widely considered a misfeature, and is going to be removed from
+the language. In GHC, it is controlled by the deprecated extension
+``DatatypeContexts``.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/default_signatures.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/default_signatures.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5b6651d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/default_signatures.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,98 @@
+.. _class-default-signatures:
+
+Default method signatures
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. extension:: DefaultSignatures
+    :shortdesc: Enable default signatures.
+
+    :since: 7.2.1
+
+    Allows the definition of default method signatures in class definitions.
+
+Haskell 98 allows you to define a default implementation when declaring
+a class: ::
+
+      class Enum a where
+        enum :: [a]
+        enum = []
+
+The type of the ``enum`` method is ``[a]``, and this is also the type of
+the default method. You can change the type of the default method by
+requiring a different context using the extension
+:extension:`DefaultSignatures`. For instance, if you have written a
+generic implementation of enumeration in a class ``GEnum`` with method
+``genum``, you can specify a default method that uses that generic
+implementation. But your default implementation can only be used if the
+constraints are satisfied, therefore you need to change the type of the
+default method ::
+
+      class Enum a where
+        enum :: [a]
+        default enum :: (Generic a, GEnum (Rep a)) => [a]
+        enum = map to genum
+
+We reuse the keyword ``default`` to signal that a signature applies to
+the default method only; when defining instances of the ``Enum`` class,
+the original type ``[a]`` of ``enum`` still applies. When giving an
+empty instance, however, the default implementation ``(map to genum)`` is
+filled-in, and type-checked with the type
+``(Generic a, GEnum (Rep a)) => [a]``.
+
+The type signature for a default method of a type class must take on the same
+form as the corresponding main method's type signature. Otherwise, the
+typechecker will reject that class's definition. By "take on the same form", we
+mean that the default type signature should differ from the main type signature
+only in their contexts. Therefore, if you have a method ``bar``: ::
+
+      class Foo a where
+        bar :: forall b. C => a -> b -> b
+
+Then a default method for ``bar`` must take on the form: ::
+
+      default bar :: forall b. C' => a -> b -> b
+
+``C`` is allowed to be different from ``C'``, but the right-hand sides of the
+type signatures must coincide. We require this because when you declare an
+empty instance for a class that uses :extension:`DefaultSignatures`, GHC
+implicitly fills in the default implementation like this: ::
+
+      instance Foo Int where
+        bar = default_bar @Int
+
+Where ``@Int`` utilizes visible type application
+(:ref:`visible-type-application`) to instantiate the ``b`` in
+``default bar :: forall b. C' => a -> b -> b``. In order for this type
+application to work, the default type signature for ``bar`` must have the same
+type variable order as the non-default signature! But there is no obligation
+for ``C`` and ``C'`` to be the same (see, for instance, the ``Enum`` example
+above, which relies on this).
+
+To further explain this example, the right-hand side of the default
+type signature for ``bar`` must be something that is alpha-equivalent to
+``forall b. a -> b -> b`` (where ``a`` is bound by the class itself, and is
+thus free in the methods' type signatures). So this would also be an acceptable
+default type signature: ::
+
+      default bar :: forall x. C' => a -> x -> x
+
+But not this (since the free variable ``a`` is in the wrong place): ::
+
+      default bar :: forall b. C' => b -> a -> b
+
+Nor this, since we can't match the type variable ``b`` with the concrete type
+``Int``: ::
+
+      default bar :: C' => a -> Int -> Int
+
+That last one deserves a special mention, however, since ``a -> Int -> Int`` is
+a straightforward instantiation of ``forall b. a -> b -> b``. You can still
+write such a default type signature, but you now must use type equalities to
+do so: ::
+
+      default bar :: forall b. (C', b ~ Int) => a -> b -> b
+
+We use default signatures to simplify generic programming in GHC
+(:ref:`generic-programming`).
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/defer_type_errors.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/defer_type_errors.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2b3f139
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/defer_type_errors.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,120 @@
+.. _defer-type-errors:
+
+Deferring type errors to runtime
+================================
+
+While developing, sometimes it is desirable to allow compilation to
+succeed even if there are type errors in the code. Consider the
+following case: ::
+
+    module Main where
+
+    a :: Int
+    a = 'a'
+
+    main = print "b"
+
+Even though ``a`` is ill-typed, it is not used in the end, so if all
+that we're interested in is ``main`` it can be useful to be able to
+ignore the problems in ``a``.
+
+For more motivation and details please refer to the
+:ghc-wiki:`Wiki <defer-errors-to-runtime>` page or the `original
+paper <http://dreixel.net/research/pdf/epdtecp.pdf>`__.
+
+Enabling deferring of type errors
+---------------------------------
+
+The flag :ghc-flag:`-fdefer-type-errors` controls whether type errors are
+deferred to runtime. Type errors will still be emitted as warnings, but
+will not prevent compilation. You can use :ghc-flag:`-Wno-deferred-type-errors`
+to suppress these warnings.
+
+This flag implies the :ghc-flag:`-fdefer-typed-holes` and
+:ghc-flag:`-fdefer-out-of-scope-variables` flags, which enables this behaviour
+for `typed holes <#typed-holes>`__ and variables. Should you so wish, it is
+possible to enable :ghc-flag:`-fdefer-type-errors` without enabling
+:ghc-flag:`-fdefer-typed-holes` or :ghc-flag:`-fdefer-out-of-scope-variables`,
+by explicitly specifying :ghc-flag:`-fno-defer-typed-holes
+<-fdefer-typed-holes>` or :ghc-flag:`-fno-defer-out-of-scope-variables
+<-fdefer-out-of-scope-variables>` on the command-line after the
+:ghc-flag:`-fdefer-type-errors` flag.
+
+At runtime, whenever a term containing a type error would need to be
+evaluated, the error is converted into a runtime exception of type
+``TypeError``. Note that type errors are deferred as much as possible
+during runtime, but invalid coercions are never performed, even when
+they would ultimately result in a value of the correct type. For
+example, given the following code: ::
+
+    x :: Int
+    x = 0
+
+    y :: Char
+    y = x
+
+    z :: Int
+    z = y
+
+evaluating ``z`` will result in a runtime ``TypeError``.
+
+Deferred type errors in GHCi
+----------------------------
+
+The flag :ghc-flag:`-fdefer-type-errors` works in GHCi as well, with one
+exception: for "naked" expressions typed at the prompt, type errors
+don't get delayed, so for example: ::
+
+    Prelude> fst (True, 1 == 'a')
+
+    <interactive>:2:12:
+        No instance for (Num Char) arising from the literal `1'
+        Possible fix: add an instance declaration for (Num Char)
+        In the first argument of `(==)', namely `1'
+        In the expression: 1 == 'a'
+        In the first argument of `fst', namely `(True, 1 == 'a')'
+
+Otherwise, in the common case of a simple type error such as typing
+``reverse True`` at the prompt, you would get a warning and then an
+immediately-following type error when the expression is evaluated.
+
+This exception doesn't apply to statements, as the following example
+demonstrates:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    Prelude> let x = (True, 1 == 'a')
+
+    <interactive>:3:16: Warning:
+        No instance for (Num Char) arising from the literal `1'
+        Possible fix: add an instance declaration for (Num Char)
+        In the first argument of `(==)', namely `1'
+        In the expression: 1 == 'a'
+        In the expression: (True, 1 == 'a')
+    Prelude> fst x
+    True
+
+Limitations of deferred type errors
+-----------------------------------
+The errors that can be deferred are:
+
+- Out of scope term variables
+- Equality constraints; e.g. `ord True` gives rise to an insoluble equality constraint `Char ~ Bool`, which can be deferred.
+- Type-class and implicit-parameter constraints
+
+All other type errors are reported immediately, and cannot be deferred; for
+example, an ill-kinded type signature, an instance declaration that is
+non-terminating or ill-formed, a type-family instance that does not
+obey the declared injectivity constraints, etc etc.
+
+In a few cases, even equality constraints cannot be deferred.  Specifically:
+
+- Kind-equalities cannot be deferred, e.g. ::
+
+    f :: Int Bool -> Char
+
+  This type signature contains a kind error which cannot be deferred.
+
+- Type equalities under a forall cannot be deferred (c.f. #14605).
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/derive_any_class.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/derive_any_class.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4cd241d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/derive_any_class.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,148 @@
+.. _derive-any-class:
+
+Deriving any other class
+------------------------
+
+.. extension:: DeriveAnyClass
+    :shortdesc: Enable deriving for any class.
+
+    :since: 7.10.1
+
+    Allow use of any typeclass in ``deriving`` clauses.
+
+With :extension:`DeriveAnyClass` you can derive any other class. The compiler
+will simply generate an instance declaration with no explicitly-defined
+methods.
+This is
+mostly useful in classes whose `minimal set <#minimal-pragma>`__ is
+empty, and especially when writing
+`generic functions <#generic-programming>`__.
+
+As an example, consider a simple pretty-printer class ``SPretty``, which outputs
+pretty strings: ::
+
+    {-# LANGUAGE DefaultSignatures, DeriveAnyClass #-}
+
+    class SPretty a where
+      sPpr :: a -> String
+      default sPpr :: Show a => a -> String
+      sPpr = show
+
+If a user does not provide a manual implementation for ``sPpr``, then it will
+default to ``show``. Now we can leverage the :extension:`DeriveAnyClass` extension to
+easily implement a ``SPretty`` instance for a new data type: ::
+
+    data Foo = Foo deriving (Show, SPretty)
+
+The above code is equivalent to: ::
+
+    data Foo = Foo deriving Show
+    instance SPretty Foo
+
+That is, an ``SPretty Foo`` instance will be created with empty implementations
+for all methods. Since we are using :extension:`DefaultSignatures` in this example, a
+default implementation of ``sPpr`` is filled in automatically.
+
+Note the following details
+
+- In case you try to derive some
+  class on a newtype, and :extension:`GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving` is also on,
+  :extension:`DeriveAnyClass` takes precedence.
+
+- The instance context is determined by the type signatures of the derived
+  class's methods. For instance, if the class is: ::
+
+    class Foo a where
+      bar :: a -> String
+      default bar :: Show a => a -> String
+      bar = show
+
+      baz :: a -> a -> Bool
+      default baz :: Ord a => a -> a -> Bool
+      baz x y = compare x y == EQ
+
+  And you attempt to derive it using :extension:`DeriveAnyClass`: ::
+
+    instance Eq   a => Eq   (Option a) where ...
+    instance Ord  a => Ord  (Option a) where ...
+    instance Show a => Show (Option a) where ...
+
+    data Option a = None | Some a deriving Foo
+
+  Then the derived ``Foo`` instance will be: ::
+
+    instance (Show a, Ord a) => Foo (Option a)
+
+  Since the default type signatures for ``bar`` and ``baz`` require ``Show a``
+  and ``Ord a`` constraints, respectively.
+
+  Constraints on the non-default type signatures can play a role in inferring
+  the instance context as well. For example, if you have this class: ::
+
+    class HigherEq f where
+      (==#) :: f a -> f a -> Bool
+      default (==#) :: Eq (f a) => f a -> f a -> Bool
+      x ==# y = (x == y)
+
+  And you tried to derive an instance for it: ::
+
+    instance Eq a => Eq (Option a) where ...
+    data Option a = None | Some a deriving HigherEq
+
+  Then it will fail with an error to the effect of: ::
+
+    No instance for (Eq a)
+        arising from the 'deriving' clause of a data type declaration
+
+  That is because we require an ``Eq (Option a)`` instance from the default
+  type signature for ``(==#)``, which in turn requires an ``Eq a`` instance,
+  which we don't have in scope. But if you tweak the definition of
+  ``HigherEq`` slightly: ::
+
+    class HigherEq f where
+      (==#) :: Eq a => f a -> f a -> Bool
+      default (==#) :: Eq (f a) => f a -> f a -> Bool
+      x ==# y = (x == y)
+
+  Then it becomes possible to derive a ``HigherEq Option`` instance. Note that
+  the only difference is that now the non-default type signature for ``(==#)``
+  brings in an ``Eq a`` constraint. Constraints from non-default type
+  signatures never appear in the derived instance context itself, but they can
+  be used to discharge obligations that are demanded by the default type
+  signatures. In the example above, the default type signature demanded an
+  ``Eq a`` instance, and the non-default signature was able to satisfy that
+  request, so the derived instance is simply: ::
+
+    instance HigherEq Option
+
+- :extension:`DeriveAnyClass` can be used with partially applied classes,
+  such as ::
+
+    data T a = MKT a deriving( D Int )
+
+  which generates ::
+
+    instance D Int a => D Int (T a) where {}
+
+- :extension:`DeriveAnyClass` can be used to fill in default instances for
+  associated type families: ::
+
+    {-# LANGUAGE DeriveAnyClass, TypeFamilies #-}
+
+    class Sizable a where
+      type Size a
+      type Size a = Int
+
+    data Bar = Bar deriving Sizable
+
+    doubleBarSize :: Size Bar -> Size Bar
+    doubleBarSize s = 2*s
+
+  The ``deriving( Sizable )`` is equivalent to saying ::
+
+    instance Sizeable Bar where {}
+
+  and then the normal rules for filling in associated types from the
+  default will apply, making ``Size Bar`` equal to ``Int``.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/deriving.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/deriving.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d10260b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/deriving.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+.. _deriving:
+
+Deriving mechanism
+==================
+
+Haskell 98 allows the programmer to add a deriving clause to a data type
+declaration, to generate a standard instance declaration for specified class.
+GHC extends this mechanism along several axes:
+
+* The derivation mechanism can be used separately from the data type
+  declaration, using the :ref:`standalone deriving mechanism
+  <stand-alone-deriving>`.
+
+* In Haskell 98, the only derivable classes are ``Eq``,
+  ``Ord``, ``Enum``, ``Ix``, ``Bounded``, ``Read``, and ``Show``. :ref:`Various
+  language extensions <deriving-extra>` extend this list.
+
+* Besides the stock approach to deriving instances by generating all method
+  definitions, GHC supports two additional deriving strategies, which can
+  derive arbitrary classes:
+
+  * :ref:`Generalised newtype deriving <newtype-deriving>` for newtypes and
+  * :ref:`deriving any class <derive-any-class>` using an empty instance
+    declaration.
+
+  The user can optionally declare the desired :ref:`deriving strategy
+  <deriving-strategies>`, especially if the compiler chooses the wrong
+  one :ref:`by default <default-deriving-strategy>`.
+
+
+.. toctree::
+    :maxdepth: 1
+
+    empty_data_deriving
+    deriving_inferred
+    standalone_deriving
+    deriving_extra
+    newtype_deriving
+    derive_any_class
+    deriving_strategies
+    deriving_via
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/deriving_extra.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/deriving_extra.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1352170
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/deriving_extra.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,587 @@
+.. _deriving-extra:
+
+Deriving instances of extra classes (``Data``, etc.)
+----------------------------------------------------
+
+Haskell 98 allows the programmer to add "``deriving( Eq, Ord )``" to a
+data type declaration, to generate a standard instance declaration for
+classes specified in the ``deriving`` clause. In Haskell 98, the only
+classes that may appear in the ``deriving`` clause are the standard
+classes ``Eq``, ``Ord``, ``Enum``, ``Ix``, ``Bounded``, ``Read``, and
+``Show``.
+
+GHC extends this list with several more classes that may be
+automatically derived:
+
+-  With :extension:`DeriveGeneric`, you can derive instances of the classes
+   ``Generic`` and ``Generic1``, defined in ``GHC.Generics``. You can
+   use these to define generic functions, as described in
+   :ref:`generic-programming`.
+
+-  With :extension:`DeriveFunctor`, you can derive instances of the class
+   ``Functor``, defined in ``GHC.Base``.
+
+-  With :extension:`DeriveDataTypeable`, you can derive instances of the class
+   ``Data``, defined in ``Data.Data``.
+
+-  With :extension:`DeriveFoldable`, you can derive instances of the class
+   ``Foldable``, defined in ``Data.Foldable``.
+
+-  With :extension:`DeriveTraversable`, you can derive instances of the class
+   ``Traversable``, defined in ``Data.Traversable``. Since the
+   ``Traversable`` instance dictates the instances of ``Functor`` and
+   ``Foldable``, you'll probably want to derive them too, so
+   :extension:`DeriveTraversable` implies :extension:`DeriveFunctor` and
+   :extension:`DeriveFoldable`.
+
+-  With :extension:`DeriveLift`, you can derive instances of the class ``Lift``,
+   defined in the ``Language.Haskell.TH.Syntax`` module of the
+   ``template-haskell`` package.
+
+You can also use a standalone deriving declaration instead (see
+:ref:`stand-alone-deriving`).
+
+In each case the appropriate class must be in scope before it can be
+mentioned in the ``deriving`` clause.
+
+.. _deriving-functor:
+
+Deriving ``Functor`` instances
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. extension:: DeriveFunctor
+    :shortdesc: Enable deriving for the Functor class.
+        Implied by :extension:`DeriveTraversable`.
+
+    :since: 7.10.1
+
+    Allow automatic deriving of instances for the ``Functor`` typeclass.
+
+
+With :extension:`DeriveFunctor`, one can derive ``Functor`` instances for data types
+of kind ``Type -> Type``. For example, this declaration::
+
+    data Example a = Ex a Char (Example a) (Example Char)
+      deriving Functor
+
+would generate the following instance: ::
+
+    instance Functor Example where
+      fmap f (Ex a1 a2 a3 a4) = Ex (f a1) a2 (fmap f a3) a4
+
+The basic algorithm for :extension:`DeriveFunctor` walks the arguments of each
+constructor of a data type, applying a mapping function depending on the type
+of each argument. If a plain type variable is found that is syntactically
+equivalent to the last type parameter of the data type (``a`` in the above
+example), then we apply the function ``f`` directly to it. If a type is
+encountered that is not syntactically equivalent to the last type parameter
+*but does mention* the last type parameter somewhere in it, then a recursive
+call to ``fmap`` is made. If a type is found which doesn't mention the last
+type parameter at all, then it is left alone.
+
+The second of those cases, in which a type is unequal to the type parameter but
+does contain the type parameter, can be surprisingly tricky. For example, the
+following example compiles::
+
+    newtype Right a = Right (Either Int a) deriving Functor
+
+Modifying the code slightly, however, produces code which will not compile::
+
+    newtype Wrong a = Wrong (Either a Int) deriving Functor
+
+The difference involves the placement of the last type parameter, ``a``. In the
+``Right`` case, ``a`` occurs within the type ``Either Int a``, and moreover, it
+appears as the last type argument of ``Either``. In the ``Wrong`` case,
+however, ``a`` is not the last type argument to ``Either``; rather, ``Int`` is.
+
+This distinction is important because of the way :extension:`DeriveFunctor` works. The
+derived ``Functor Right`` instance would be::
+
+    instance Functor Right where
+      fmap f (Right a) = Right (fmap f a)
+
+Given a value of type ``Right a``, GHC must produce a value of type
+``Right b``. Since the argument to the ``Right`` constructor has type
+``Either Int a``, the code recursively calls ``fmap`` on it to produce a value
+of type ``Either Int b``, which is used in turn to construct a final value of
+type ``Right b``.
+
+The generated code for the ``Functor Wrong`` instance would look exactly the
+same, except with ``Wrong`` replacing every occurrence of ``Right``. The
+problem is now that ``fmap`` is being applied recursively to a value of type
+``Either a Int``. This cannot possibly produce a value of type
+``Either b Int``, as ``fmap`` can only change the last type parameter! This
+causes the generated code to be ill-typed.
+
+As a general rule, if a data type has a derived ``Functor`` instance and its
+last type parameter occurs on the right-hand side of the data declaration, then
+either it must (1) occur bare (e.g., ``newtype Id a = Id a``), or (2) occur as the
+last argument of a type constructor (as in ``Right`` above).
+
+There are two exceptions to this rule:
+
+#. Tuple types. When a non-unit tuple is used on the right-hand side of a data
+   declaration, :extension:`DeriveFunctor` treats it as a product of distinct types.
+   In other words, the following code::
+
+       newtype Triple a = Triple (a, Int, [a]) deriving Functor
+
+   Would result in a generated ``Functor`` instance like so::
+
+       instance Functor Triple where
+         fmap f (Triple a) =
+           Triple (case a of
+                        (a1, a2, a3) -> (f a1, a2, fmap f a3))
+
+   That is, :extension:`DeriveFunctor` pattern-matches its way into tuples and maps
+   over each type that constitutes the tuple. The generated code is
+   reminiscent of what would be generated from
+   ``data Triple a = Triple a Int [a]``, except with extra machinery to handle
+   the tuple.
+
+#. Function types. The last type parameter can appear anywhere in a function
+   type as long as it occurs in a *covariant* position. To illustrate what this
+   means, consider the following three examples::
+
+       newtype CovFun1 a = CovFun1 (Int -> a) deriving Functor
+       newtype CovFun2 a = CovFun2 ((a -> Int) -> a) deriving Functor
+       newtype CovFun3 a = CovFun3 (((Int -> a) -> Int) -> a) deriving Functor
+
+   All three of these examples would compile without issue. On the other hand::
+
+       newtype ContraFun1 a = ContraFun1 (a -> Int) deriving Functor
+       newtype ContraFun2 a = ContraFun2 ((Int -> a) -> Int) deriving Functor
+       newtype ContraFun3 a = ContraFun3 (((a -> Int) -> a) -> Int) deriving Functor
+
+   While these examples look similar, none of them would successfully compile.
+   This is because all occurrences of the last type parameter ``a`` occur in *contravariant* positions, not covariant ones.
+
+   Intuitively, a covariant type is *produced*, and a contravariant type is
+   *consumed*. Most types in Haskell are covariant, but the function type is
+   special in that the lefthand side of a function arrow reverses variance. If
+   a function type ``a -> b`` appears in a covariant position (e.g.,
+   ``CovFun1`` above), then ``a`` is in a contravariant position and ``b`` is
+   in a covariant position. Similarly, if ``a -> b`` appears in a contravariant
+   position (e.g., ``CovFun2`` above), then ``a`` is in ``a`` covariant
+   position and ``b`` is in a contravariant position.
+
+   To see why a data type with a contravariant occurrence of its last type
+   parameter cannot have a derived ``Functor`` instance, let's suppose that a
+   ``Functor ContraFun1`` instance exists. The implementation would look
+   something like this::
+
+       instance Functor ContraFun1 where
+         fmap f (ContraFun g) = ContraFun (\x -> _)
+
+   We have ``f :: a -> b``, ``g :: a -> Int``, and ``x :: b``. Using these, we
+   must somehow fill in the hole (denoted with an underscore) with a value of
+   type ``Int``. What are our options?
+
+   We could try applying ``g`` to ``x``. This won't work though, as ``g``
+   expects an argument of type ``a``, and ``x :: b``. Even worse, we can't turn
+   ``x`` into something of type ``a``, since ``f`` also needs an argument of
+   type ``a``! In short, there's no good way to make this work.
+
+   On the other hand, a derived ``Functor`` instances for the ``CovFun``\ s are
+   within the realm of possibility::
+
+       instance Functor CovFun1 where
+         fmap f (CovFun1 g) = CovFun1 (\x -> f (g x))
+
+       instance Functor CovFun2 where
+         fmap f (CovFun2 g) = CovFun2 (\h -> f (g (\x -> h (f x))))
+
+       instance Functor CovFun3 where
+         fmap f (CovFun3 g) = CovFun3 (\h -> f (g (\k -> h (\x -> f (k x)))))
+
+There are some other scenarios in which a derived ``Functor`` instance will
+fail to compile:
+
+#. A data type has no type parameters (e.g., ``data Nothing = Nothing``).
+
+#. A data type's last type variable is used in a :extension:`DatatypeContexts`
+   constraint (e.g., ``data Ord a => O a = O a``).
+
+#. A data type's last type variable is used in an
+   :extension:`ExistentialQuantification` constraint, or is refined in a GADT. For
+   example, ::
+
+       data T a b where
+           T4 :: Ord b => b -> T a b
+           T5 :: b -> T b b
+           T6 :: T a (b,b)
+
+       deriving instance Functor (T a)
+
+   would not compile successfully due to the way in which ``b`` is constrained.
+
+When the last type parameter has a phantom role (see :ref:`roles`), the derived
+``Functor`` instance will not be produced using the usual algorithm. Instead,
+the entire value will be coerced. ::
+
+    data Phantom a = Z | S (Phantom a) deriving Functor
+
+will produce the following instance: ::
+
+    instance Functor Phantom where
+      fmap _ = coerce
+
+When a type has no constructors, the derived ``Functor`` instance will
+simply force the (bottom) value of the argument using
+:extension:`EmptyCase`. ::
+
+    data V a deriving Functor
+    type role V nominal
+
+will produce
+
+    instance Functor V where
+      fmap _ z = case z of
+
+.. _deriving-foldable:
+
+Deriving ``Foldable`` instances
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. extension:: DeriveFoldable
+    :shortdesc: Enable deriving for the Foldable class.
+        Implied by :extension:`DeriveTraversable`.
+
+    :since: 7.10.1
+
+    Allow automatic deriving of instances for the ``Foldable`` typeclass.
+
+With :extension:`DeriveFoldable`, one can derive ``Foldable`` instances for data types
+of kind ``Type -> Type``. For example, this declaration::
+
+    data Example a = Ex a Char (Example a) (Example Char)
+      deriving Foldable
+
+would generate the following instance::
+
+    instance Foldable Example where
+      foldr f z (Ex a1 a2 a3 a4) = f a1 (foldr f z a3)
+      foldMap f (Ex a1 a2 a3 a4) = mappend (f a1) (foldMap f a3)
+
+The algorithm for :extension:`DeriveFoldable` is adapted from the
+:extension:`DeriveFunctor` algorithm, but it generates definitions for
+``foldMap``, ``foldr``, and ``null`` instead of ``fmap``. In addition,
+:extension:`DeriveFoldable` filters out all constructor arguments on the RHS
+expression whose types do not mention the last type parameter, since those
+arguments do not need to be folded over.
+
+When the type parameter has a phantom role (see :ref:`roles`),
+:extension:`DeriveFoldable` derives a trivial instance. For example, this
+declaration: ::
+
+    data Phantom a = Z | S (Phantom a)
+
+will generate the following instance. ::
+
+    instance Foldable Phantom where
+      foldMap _ _ = mempty
+
+Similarly, when the type has no constructors, :extension:`DeriveFoldable` will
+derive a trivial instance: ::
+
+    data V a deriving Foldable
+    type role V nominal
+
+will generate the following. ::
+
+    instance Foldable V where
+      foldMap _ _ = mempty
+
+Here are the differences between the generated code for ``Functor`` and
+``Foldable``:
+
+#. When a bare type variable ``a`` is encountered, :extension:`DeriveFunctor`
+would generate ``f a`` for an ``fmap`` definition. :extension:`DeriveFoldable`
+would generate ``f a z`` for ``foldr``, ``f a`` for ``foldMap``, and ``False``
+for ``null``.
+
+#. When a type that is not syntactically equivalent to ``a``, but which does
+   contain ``a``, is encountered, :extension:`DeriveFunctor` recursively calls
+   ``fmap`` on it. Similarly, :extension:`DeriveFoldable` would recursively call
+   ``foldr`` and ``foldMap``. Depending on the context, ``null`` may recursively
+   call ``null`` or ``all null``. For example, given ::
+
+       data F a = F (P a)
+       data G a = G (P (a, Int))
+       data H a = H (P (Q a))
+
+   ``Foldable`` deriving will produce ::
+
+       null (F x) = null x
+       null (G x) = null x
+       null (H x) = all null x
+
+#. :extension:`DeriveFunctor` puts everything back together again at the end by
+   invoking the constructor. :extension:`DeriveFoldable`, however, builds up a value
+   of some type. For ``foldr``, this is accomplished by chaining applications
+   of ``f`` and recursive ``foldr`` calls on the state value ``z``. For
+   ``foldMap``, this happens by combining all values with ``mappend``. For ``null``,
+   the values are usually combined with ``&&``. However, if any of the values is
+   known to be ``False``, all the rest will be dropped. For example, ::
+
+       data SnocList a = Nil | Snoc (SnocList a) a
+
+   will not produce ::
+
+       null (Snoc xs _) = null xs && False
+
+   (which would walk the whole list), but rather ::
+
+       null (Snoc _ _) = False
+
+There are some other differences regarding what data types can have derived
+``Foldable`` instances:
+
+#. Data types containing function types on the right-hand side cannot have
+   derived ``Foldable`` instances.
+
+#. ``Foldable`` instances can be derived for data types in which the last type
+   parameter is existentially constrained or refined in a GADT. For example,
+   this data type::
+
+       data E a where
+           E1 :: (a ~ Int) => a   -> E a
+           E2 ::              Int -> E Int
+           E3 :: (a ~ Int) => a   -> E Int
+           E4 :: (a ~ Int) => Int -> E a
+
+       deriving instance Foldable E
+
+   would have the following generated ``Foldable`` instance::
+
+       instance Foldable E where
+           foldr f z (E1 e) = f e z
+           foldr f z (E2 e) = z
+           foldr f z (E3 e) = z
+           foldr f z (E4 e) = z
+
+           foldMap f (E1 e) = f e
+           foldMap f (E2 e) = mempty
+           foldMap f (E3 e) = mempty
+           foldMap f (E4 e) = mempty
+
+   Notice how every constructor of ``E`` utilizes some sort of existential
+   quantification, but only the argument of ``E1`` is actually "folded over".
+   This is because we make a deliberate choice to only fold over universally
+   polymorphic types that are syntactically equivalent to the last type
+   parameter. In particular:
+
+  -  We don't fold over the arguments of ``E1`` or ``E4`` because even though
+     ``(a ~ Int)``, ``Int`` is not syntactically equivalent to ``a``.
+
+  -  We don't fold over the argument of ``E3`` because ``a`` is not universally
+     polymorphic. The ``a`` in ``E3`` is (implicitly) existentially quantified,
+     so it is not the same as the last type parameter of ``E``.
+
+.. _deriving-traversable:
+
+Deriving ``Traversable`` instances
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+
+.. extension:: DeriveTraversable
+    :shortdesc: Enable deriving for the Traversable class.
+        Implies :extension:`DeriveFunctor` and :extension:`DeriveFoldable`.
+
+    :implies: :extension:`DeriveFoldable`, :extension:`DeriveFunctor`
+    :since: 7.10.1
+
+    Allow automatic deriving of instances for the ``Traversable`` typeclass.
+
+With :extension:`DeriveTraversable`, one can derive ``Traversable`` instances for data
+types of kind ``Type -> Type``. For example, this declaration::
+
+    data Example a = Ex a Char (Example a) (Example Char)
+      deriving (Functor, Foldable, Traversable)
+
+would generate the following ``Traversable`` instance::
+
+    instance Traversable Example where
+      traverse f (Ex a1 a2 a3 a4)
+        = fmap (\b1 b3 -> Ex b1 a2 b3 a4) (f a1) <*> traverse f a3
+
+The algorithm for :extension:`DeriveTraversable` is adapted from the
+:extension:`DeriveFunctor` algorithm, but it generates a definition for ``traverse``
+instead of ``fmap``. In addition, :extension:`DeriveTraversable` filters out
+all constructor arguments on the RHS expression whose types do not mention the
+last type parameter, since those arguments do not produce any effects in a
+traversal.
+
+When the type parameter has a phantom role (see :ref:`roles`),
+:extension:`DeriveTraversable` coerces its argument. For example, this
+declaration::
+
+    data Phantom a = Z | S (Phantom a) deriving Traversable
+
+will generate the following instance::
+
+    instance Traversable Phantom where
+      traverse _ z = pure (coerce z)
+
+When the type has no constructors, :extension:`DeriveTraversable` will
+derive the laziest instance it can. ::
+
+    data V a deriving Traversable
+    type role V nominal
+
+will generate the following, using :extension:`EmptyCase`: ::
+
+    instance Traversable V where
+      traverse _ z = pure (case z of)
+
+Here are the differences between the generated code in each
+extension:
+
+#. When a bare type variable ``a`` is encountered, both :extension:`DeriveFunctor` and
+   :extension:`DeriveTraversable` would generate ``f a`` for an ``fmap`` and
+   ``traverse`` definition, respectively.
+
+#. When a type that is not syntactically equivalent to ``a``, but which does
+   contain ``a``, is encountered, :extension:`DeriveFunctor` recursively calls
+   ``fmap`` on it. Similarly, :extension:`DeriveTraversable` would recursively call
+   ``traverse``.
+
+#. :extension:`DeriveFunctor` puts everything back together again at the end by
+   invoking the constructor. :extension:`DeriveTraversable` does something similar,
+   but it works in an ``Applicative`` context by chaining everything together
+   with ``(<*>)``.
+
+Unlike :extension:`DeriveFunctor`, :extension:`DeriveTraversable` cannot be used on data
+types containing a function type on the right-hand side.
+
+For a full specification of the algorithms used in :extension:`DeriveFunctor`,
+:extension:`DeriveFoldable`, and :extension:`DeriveTraversable`, see
+:ghc-wiki:`this wiki page <commentary/compiler/derive-functor>`.
+
+.. _deriving-data:
+
+Deriving ``Data`` instances
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. extension:: DeriveDataTypeable
+    :shortdesc: Enable deriving for the ``Data`` class.
+       Implied by (deprecated) ``AutoDeriveTypeable``.
+
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Enable automatic deriving of instances for the ``Data`` typeclass
+
+.. _deriving-typeable:
+
+Deriving ``Typeable`` instances
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The class ``Typeable`` is very special:
+
+-  ``Typeable`` is kind-polymorphic (see :ref:`kind-polymorphism`).
+
+-  GHC has a custom solver for discharging constraints that involve
+   class ``Typeable``, and handwritten instances are forbidden. This
+   ensures that the programmer cannot subvert the type system by writing
+   bogus instances.
+
+-  Derived instances of ``Typeable`` may be declared if the
+   :extension:`DeriveDataTypeable` extension is enabled, but they are ignored,
+   and they may be reported as an error in a later version of the compiler.
+
+-  The rules for solving ``Typeable`` constraints are as follows:
+
+   -  A concrete type constructor applied to some types. ::
+
+          instance (Typeable t1, .., Typeable t_n) =>
+            Typeable (T t1 .. t_n)
+
+      This rule works for any concrete type constructor, including type
+      constructors with polymorphic kinds. The only restriction is that
+      if the type constructor has a polymorphic kind, then it has to be
+      applied to all of its kinds parameters, and these kinds need to be
+      concrete (i.e., they cannot mention kind variables).
+
+   -  A type variable applied to some types::
+
+          instance (Typeable f, Typeable t1, .., Typeable t_n) =>
+            Typeable (f t1 .. t_n)
+
+   -  A concrete type literal.::
+
+          instance Typeable 0       -- Type natural literals
+          instance Typeable "Hello" -- Type-level symbols
+
+.. _deriving-lift:
+
+Deriving ``Lift`` instances
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. extension:: DeriveLift
+    :shortdesc: Enable deriving for the Lift class
+
+    :since: 8.0.1
+
+    Enable automatic deriving of instances for the ``Lift`` typeclass for
+    Template Haskell.
+
+The class ``Lift``, unlike other derivable classes, lives in
+``template-haskell`` instead of ``base``. Having a data type be an instance of
+``Lift`` permits its values to be promoted to Template Haskell expressions (of
+type ``ExpQ`` and ``TExpQ a``), which can then be spliced into Haskell source
+code.
+
+Here is an example of how one can derive ``Lift``:
+
+::
+
+    {-# LANGUAGE DeriveLift #-}
+    module Bar where
+
+    import Language.Haskell.TH.Syntax
+
+    data Foo a = Foo a | a :^: a deriving Lift
+
+    {-
+    instance (Lift a) => Lift (Foo a) where
+        lift (Foo a) = [| Foo a |]
+        lift ((:^:) u v) = [| (:^:) u v |]
+
+        liftTyped (Foo a) = [|| Foo a ||]
+        liftTyped ((:^:) u v) = [|| (:^:) u v ||]
+    -}
+
+    -----
+    {-# LANGUAGE TemplateHaskell #-}
+    module Baz where
+
+    import Bar
+    import Language.Haskell.TH.Lift
+
+    foo :: Foo String
+    foo = $(lift $ Foo "foo")
+
+    fooExp :: Lift a => Foo a -> Q Exp
+    fooExp f = [| f |]
+
+Note that the ``Lift`` typeclass takes advantage of :ref:`runtime-rep` in order
+to support instances involving unboxed types. This means :extension:`DeriveLift`
+also works for these types:
+
+::
+
+    {-# LANGUAGE DeriveLift, MagicHash #-}
+    module Unboxed where
+
+    import GHC.Exts
+    import Language.Haskell.TH.Syntax
+
+    data IntHash = IntHash Int# deriving Lift
+
+    {-
+    instance Lift IntHash where
+        lift (IntHash i) = [| IntHash i |]
+        liftTyped (IntHash i) = [|| IntHash i ||]
+    -}
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/deriving_inferred.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/deriving_inferred.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..08eb06d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/deriving_inferred.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+.. _deriving-inferred:
+
+Inferred context for deriving clauses
+-------------------------------------
+
+The Haskell Report is vague about exactly when a ``deriving`` clause is
+legal. For example: ::
+
+      data T0 f a = MkT0 a         deriving( Eq )
+      data T1 f a = MkT1 (f a)     deriving( Eq )
+      data T2 f a = MkT2 (f (f a)) deriving( Eq )
+
+The natural generated ``Eq`` code would result in these instance
+declarations: ::
+
+      instance Eq a         => Eq (T0 f a) where ...
+      instance Eq (f a)     => Eq (T1 f a) where ...
+      instance Eq (f (f a)) => Eq (T2 f a) where ...
+
+The first of these is obviously fine. The second is still fine, although
+less obviously. The third is not Haskell 98, and risks losing
+termination of instances.
+
+GHC takes a conservative position: it accepts the first two, but not the
+third. The rule is this: each constraint in the inferred instance
+context must consist only of type variables, with no repetitions.
+
+This rule is applied regardless of flags. If you want a more exotic
+context, you can write it yourself, using the `standalone deriving
+mechanism <#stand-alone-deriving>`__.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/deriving_strategies.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/deriving_strategies.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2a0e6b5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/deriving_strategies.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,96 @@
+.. _deriving-strategies:
+
+Deriving strategies
+-------------------
+
+.. extension:: DerivingStrategies
+    :shortdesc: Enables deriving strategies.
+
+    :since: 8.2.1
+
+    Allow multiple ``deriving``, each optionally qualified with a *strategy*.
+
+In most scenarios, every ``deriving`` statement generates a typeclass instance
+in an unambiguous fashion. There is a corner case, however, where
+simultaneously enabling both the :extension:`GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving` and
+:extension:`DeriveAnyClass` extensions can make deriving become ambiguous.
+Consider the following example ::
+
+    {-# LANGUAGE DeriveAnyClass, GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving #-}
+    newtype Foo = MkFoo Bar deriving C
+
+One could either pick the ``DeriveAnyClass`` approach to deriving ``C`` or the
+``GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving`` approach to deriving ``C``, both of which would
+be equally as valid. GHC defaults to favoring ``DeriveAnyClass`` in such a
+dispute, but this is not a satisfying solution, since that leaves users unable
+to use both language extensions in a single module.
+
+To make this more robust, GHC has a notion of deriving strategies, which allow
+the user to explicitly request which approach to use when deriving an instance.
+To enable this feature, one must enable the :extension:`DerivingStrategies`
+language extension. A deriving strategy can be specified in a deriving
+clause ::
+
+    newtype Foo = MkFoo Bar
+      deriving newtype C
+
+Or in a standalone deriving declaration ::
+
+    deriving anyclass instance C Foo
+
+:extension:`DerivingStrategies` also allows the use of multiple deriving
+clauses per data declaration so that a user can derive some instance with
+one deriving strategy and other instances with another deriving strategy.
+For example ::
+
+    newtype Baz = Baz Quux
+      deriving          (Eq, Ord)
+      deriving stock    (Read, Show)
+      deriving newtype  (Num, Floating)
+      deriving anyclass C
+
+Currently, the deriving strategies are:
+
+- ``stock``: Have GHC implement a "standard" instance for a data type,
+  if possible (e.g., ``Eq``, ``Ord``, ``Generic``, ``Data``, ``Functor``, etc.)
+
+- ``anyclass``: Use :extension:`DeriveAnyClass` (see :ref:`derive-any-class`)
+
+- ``newtype``: Use :extension:`GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving`
+               (see :ref:`newtype-deriving`)
+
+- ``via``: Use :extension:`DerivingVia` (see :ref:`deriving-via`)
+
+.. _default-deriving-strategy:
+
+Default deriving strategy
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+If an explicit deriving strategy is not given, multiple strategies may apply.
+In that case, GHC chooses the strategy as follows:
+
+1. Stock type classes, i.e. those specified in the report and those enabled by
+   `language extensions <#deriving-extra>`__, are derived using the ``stock``
+   strategy, with the following exception:
+
+   * For newtypes, ``Eq``, ``Ord``, ``Ix`` and ``Bounded`` are always derived
+     using the ``newtype`` strategy, even without
+     ``GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving`` enabled. (There should be no observable
+     difference to instances derived using the stock strategy.)
+
+   * Also for newtypes, ``Functor``, ``Foldable`` and ``Enum`` are derived
+     using the ``newtype`` strategy if ``GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving`` is
+     enabled and the derivation succeeds.
+
+2. For other any type class:
+
+   1. When :extension:`DeriveAnyClass` is enabled, use ``anyclass``.
+
+   2. When :extension:`GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving` is enabled and we are
+      deriving for a newtype, then use ``newtype``.
+
+   If both rules apply to a deriving clause, then ``anyclass`` is used and the
+   user is warned about the ambiguity. The warning can be avoided by explicitly
+   stating the desired deriving strategy.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/deriving_via.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/deriving_via.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f4ef516
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/deriving_via.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,120 @@
+.. _deriving-via:
+
+Deriving via
+------------
+
+.. extension:: DerivingVia
+    :shortdesc: Enable deriving instances ``via`` types of the same runtime
+        representation.
+        Implies :extension:`DerivingStrategies`.
+
+    :implies: :extension:`DerivingStrategies`
+
+    :since: 8.6.1
+
+This allows ``deriving`` a class instance for a type by specifying
+another type of equal runtime representation (such that there exists a
+``Coercible`` instance between the two: see :ref:`coercible`) that is
+already an instance of the that class.
+
+:extension:`DerivingVia` is indicated by the use of the ``via``
+deriving strategy. ``via`` requires specifying another type (the ``via`` type)
+to ``coerce`` through. For example, this code: ::
+
+    {-# LANGUAGE DerivingVia #-}
+
+    import Numeric
+
+    newtype Hex a = Hex a
+
+    instance (Integral a, Show a) => Show (Hex a) where
+      show (Hex a) = "0x" ++ showHex a ""
+
+    newtype Unicode = U Int
+      deriving Show
+        via (Hex Int)
+
+    -- >>> euroSign
+    -- 0x20ac
+    euroSign :: Unicode
+    euroSign = U 0x20ac
+
+Generates the following instance ::
+
+    instance Show Unicode where
+      show :: Unicode -> String
+      show = Data.Coerce.coerce
+        @(Hex Int -> String)
+        @(Unicode -> String)
+        show
+
+This extension generalizes :extension:`GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving`. To
+derive ``Num Unicode`` with GND (``deriving newtype Num``) it must
+reuse the ``Num Int`` instance. With ``DerivingVia``, we can explicitly
+specify the representation type ``Int``: ::
+
+    newtype Unicode = U Int
+      deriving Num
+        via Int
+
+      deriving Show
+        via (Hex Int)
+
+    euroSign :: Unicode
+    euroSign = 0x20ac
+
+Code duplication is common in instance declarations. A familiar
+pattern is lifting operations over an ``Applicative`` functor.
+Instead of having catch-all instances for ``f a`` which overlap
+with all other such instances, like so: ::
+
+    instance (Applicative f, Semigroup a) => Semigroup (f a) ..
+    instance (Applicative f, Monoid    a) => Monoid    (f a) ..
+
+We can instead create a newtype ``App``
+(where ``App f a`` and ``f a`` are represented the same in memory)
+and use :extension:`DerivingVia` to explicitly enable uses of this
+pattern: ::
+
+    {-# LANGUAGE DerivingVia, DeriveFunctor, GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving #-}
+
+    import Control.Applicative
+
+    newtype App f a = App (f a) deriving newtype (Functor, Applicative)
+
+    instance (Applicative f, Semigroup a) => Semigroup (App f a) where
+      (<>) = liftA2 (<>)
+
+    instance (Applicative f, Monoid a) => Monoid (App f a) where
+      mempty = pure mempty
+
+    data Pair a = MkPair a a
+      deriving stock
+        Functor
+
+      deriving (Semigroup, Monoid)
+        via (App Pair a)
+
+    instance Applicative Pair where
+      pure a = MkPair a a
+
+      MkPair f g <*> MkPair a b = MkPair (f a) (g b)
+
+Note that the ``via`` type does not have to be a ``newtype``.
+The only restriction is that it is coercible with the
+original data type. This means there can be arbitrary nesting of newtypes,
+as in the following example: ::
+
+    newtype Kleisli m a b = (a -> m b)
+      deriving (Semigroup, Monoid)
+        via (a -> App m b)
+
+Here we make use of the ``Monoid ((->) a)`` instance.
+
+When used in combination with :extension:`StandaloneDeriving` we swap the order
+for the instance we base our derivation on and the instance we define e.g.: ::
+
+  deriving via (a -> App m b) instance Monoid (Kleisli m a b)
+
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/disambiguate_record_fields.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/disambiguate_record_fields.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5fd8015
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/disambiguate_record_fields.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,76 @@
+.. _disambiguate-fields:
+
+Record field disambiguation
+---------------------------
+
+.. extension:: DisambiguateRecordFields
+    :shortdesc: Enable record field disambiguation.
+        Implied by :extension:`RecordWildCards`.
+
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Allow the compiler to automatically choose between identically-named
+    record selectors based on type (if the choice is unambiguous).
+
+In record construction and record pattern matching it is entirely
+unambiguous which field is referred to, even if there are two different
+data types in scope with a common field name. For example:
+
+::
+
+    module M where
+      data S = MkS { x :: Int, y :: Bool }
+
+    module Foo where
+      import M
+
+      data T = MkT { x :: Int }
+
+      ok1 (MkS { x = n }) = n+1   -- Unambiguous
+      ok2 n = MkT { x = n+1 }     -- Unambiguous
+
+      bad1 k = k { x = 3 }        -- Ambiguous
+      bad2 k = x k                -- Ambiguous
+
+Even though there are two ``x``'s in scope, it is clear that the ``x``
+in the pattern in the definition of ``ok1`` can only mean the field
+``x`` from type ``S``. Similarly for the function ``ok2``. However, in
+the record update in ``bad1`` and the record selection in ``bad2`` it is
+not clear which of the two types is intended.
+
+Haskell 98 regards all four as ambiguous, but with the
+:extension:`DisambiguateRecordFields` extension, GHC will accept the former two. The
+rules are precisely the same as those for instance declarations in
+Haskell 98, where the method names on the left-hand side of the method
+bindings in an instance declaration refer unambiguously to the method of
+that class (provided they are in scope at all), even if there are other
+variables in scope with the same name. This reduces the clutter of
+qualified names when you import two records from different modules that
+use the same field name.
+
+Some details:
+
+-  Field disambiguation can be combined with punning (see
+   :ref:`record-puns`). For example: ::
+
+       module Foo where
+         import M
+         x=True
+         ok3 (MkS { x }) = x+1   -- Uses both disambiguation and punning
+
+-  With :extension:`DisambiguateRecordFields` you can use *unqualified* field
+   names even if the corresponding selector is only in scope *qualified*
+   For example, assuming the same module ``M`` as in our earlier
+   example, this is legal: ::
+
+       module Foo where
+         import qualified M    -- Note qualified
+
+         ok4 (M.MkS { x = n }) = n+1   -- Unambiguous
+
+   Since the constructor ``MkS`` is only in scope qualified, you must
+   name it ``M.MkS``, but the field ``x`` does not need to be qualified
+   even though ``M.x`` is in scope but ``x`` is not (In effect, it is
+   qualified by the constructor).
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/duplicate_record_fields.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/duplicate_record_fields.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a99c0c8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/duplicate_record_fields.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,136 @@
+.. _duplicate-record-fields:
+
+Duplicate record fields
+-----------------------
+
+.. extension:: DuplicateRecordFields
+    :shortdesc: Allow definition of record types with identically-named fields.
+
+    :implies: :extension:`DisambiguateRecordFields`
+    :since: 8.0.1
+
+    Allow definition of record types with identically-named fields.
+
+Going beyond :extension:`DisambiguateRecordFields` (see :ref:`disambiguate-fields`),
+the :extension:`DuplicateRecordFields` extension allows multiple datatypes to be
+declared using the same field names in a single module. For example, it allows
+this: ::
+
+    module M where
+      data S = MkS { x :: Int }
+      data T = MkT { x :: Bool }
+
+Uses of fields that are always unambiguous because they mention the constructor,
+including construction and pattern-matching, may freely use duplicated field
+names. For example, the following are permitted (just as with
+:extension:`DisambiguateRecordFields`): ::
+
+    s = MkS { x = 3 }
+
+    f (MkT { x = b }) = b
+
+Field names used as selector functions or in record updates must be unambiguous,
+either because there is only one such field in scope, or because a type
+signature is supplied, as described in the following sections.
+
+Selector functions
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Fields may be used as selector functions only if they are unambiguous, so this
+is still not allowed if both ``S(x)`` and ``T(x)`` are in scope: ::
+
+    bad r = x r
+
+An ambiguous selector may be disambiguated by the type being "pushed down" to
+the occurrence of the selector (see :ref:`higher-rank-type-inference` for more
+details on what "pushed down" means). For example, the following are permitted: ::
+
+    ok1 = x :: S -> Int
+
+    ok2 :: S -> Int
+    ok2 = x
+
+    ok3 = k x -- assuming we already have k :: (S -> Int) -> _
+
+In addition, the datatype that is meant may be given as a type signature on the
+argument to the selector: ::
+
+    ok4 s = x (s :: S)
+
+However, we do not infer the type of the argument to determine the datatype, or
+have any way of deferring the choice to the constraint solver. Thus the
+following is ambiguous: ::
+
+    bad :: S -> Int
+    bad s = x s
+
+Even though a field label is duplicated in its defining module, it may be
+possible to use the selector unambiguously elsewhere. For example, another
+module could import ``S(x)`` but not ``T(x)``, and then use ``x`` unambiguously.
+
+Record updates
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+In a record update such as ``e { x = 1 }``, if there are multiple ``x`` fields
+in scope, then the type of the context must fix which record datatype is
+intended, or a type annotation must be supplied. Consider the following
+definitions: ::
+
+    data S = MkS { foo :: Int }
+    data T = MkT { foo :: Int, bar :: Int }
+    data U = MkU { bar :: Int, baz :: Int }
+
+Without :extension:`DuplicateRecordFields`, an update mentioning ``foo`` will always be
+ambiguous if all these definitions were in scope. When the extension is enabled,
+there are several options for disambiguating updates:
+
+- Check for types that have all the fields being updated. For example: ::
+
+      f x = x { foo = 3, bar = 2 }
+
+  Here ``f`` must be updating ``T`` because neither ``S`` nor ``U`` have both
+  fields.
+
+- Use the type being pushed in to the record update, as in the following: ::
+
+      g1 :: T -> T
+      g1 x = x { foo = 3 }
+
+      g2 x = x { foo = 3 } :: T
+
+      g3 = k (x { foo = 3 }) -- assuming we already have k :: T -> _
+
+- Use an explicit type signature on the record expression, as in: ::
+
+      h x = (x :: T) { foo = 3 }
+
+The type of the expression being updated will not be inferred, and no
+constraint-solving will be performed, so the following will be rejected as
+ambiguous: ::
+
+    let x :: T
+        x = blah
+    in x { foo = 3 }
+
+    \x -> [x { foo = 3 },  blah :: T ]
+
+    \ (x :: T) -> x { foo = 3 }
+
+Import and export of record fields
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+When :extension:`DuplicateRecordFields` is enabled, an ambiguous field must be exported
+as part of its datatype, rather than at the top level. For example, the
+following is legal: ::
+
+    module M (S(x), T(..)) where
+      data S = MkS { x :: Int }
+      data T = MkT { x :: Bool }
+
+However, this would not be permitted, because ``x`` is ambiguous: ::
+
+    module M (x) where ...
+
+Similar restrictions apply on import.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/empty_case.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/empty_case.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c42de22
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/empty_case.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,49 @@
+.. _empty-case:
+
+Empty case alternatives
+-----------------------
+
+.. extension:: EmptyCase
+    :shortdesc: Allow empty case alternatives.
+
+    :since: 7.8.1
+
+    Allow empty case expressions.
+
+The :extension:`EmptyCase` extension enables case expressions, or lambda-case
+expressions, that have no alternatives, thus: ::
+
+    case e of { }   -- No alternatives
+
+or ::
+
+    \case { }       -- -XLambdaCase is also required
+
+This can be useful when you know that the expression being scrutinised
+has no non-bottom values. For example:
+
+::
+
+      data Void
+      f :: Void -> Int
+      f x = case x of { }
+
+With dependently-typed features it is more useful (see :ghc-ticket:`2431`). For
+example, consider these two candidate definitions of ``absurd``:
+
+::
+
+    data a :~: b where
+      Refl :: a :~: a
+
+    absurd :: True :~: False -> a
+    absurd x = error "absurd"    -- (A)
+    absurd x = case x of {}      -- (B)
+
+We much prefer (B). Why? Because GHC can figure out that
+``(True :~: False)`` is an empty type. So (B) has no partiality and GHC
+is able to compile with :ghc-flag:`-Wincomplete-patterns` and
+:ghc-flag:`-Werror`. On the other hand (A) looks dangerous, and GHC doesn't
+check to make sure that, in fact, the function can never get called.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/empty_data_deriving.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/empty_data_deriving.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..820cf35
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/empty_data_deriving.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+.. _empty-data-deriving:
+
+Deriving instances for empty data types
+---------------------------------------
+
+.. extension:: EmptyDataDeriving
+    :shortdesc: Allow deriving instances of standard type classes for
+                empty data types.
+
+    :since: 8.4.1
+
+    Allow deriving instances of standard type classes for empty data types.
+
+One can write data types with no constructors using the
+:extension:`EmptyDataDecls` flag (see :ref:`nullary-types`), which is on by
+default in Haskell 2010. What is not on by default is the ability to derive
+type class instances for these types. This ability is enabled through use of
+the :extension:`EmptyDataDeriving` flag. For instance, this lets one write: ::
+
+    data Empty deriving (Eq, Ord, Read, Show)
+
+This would generate the following instances: ::
+
+    instance Eq Empty where
+      _ == _ = True
+
+    instance Ord Empty where
+      compare _ _ = EQ
+
+    instance Read Empty where
+      readPrec = pfail
+
+    instance Show Empty where
+      showsPrec _ x = case x of {}
+
+The :extension:`EmptyDataDeriving` flag is only required to enable deriving
+of these four "standard" type classes (which are mentioned in the Haskell
+Report). Other extensions to the ``deriving`` mechanism, which are explained
+below in greater detail, do not require :extension:`EmptyDataDeriving` to be
+used in conjunction with empty data types. These include:
+
+* :extension:`StandaloneDeriving` (see :ref:`stand-alone-deriving`)
+* Type classes which require their own extensions to be enabled to be derived,
+  such as :extension:`DeriveFunctor` (see :ref:`deriving-extra`)
+* :extension:`DeriveAnyClass` (see :ref:`derive-any-class`)
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/equality_constraints.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/equality_constraints.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..214d686
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/equality_constraints.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,81 @@
+Equality constraints and Coercible constraint
+=============================================
+
+.. _equality-constraints:
+
+Equality constraints
+--------------------
+
+A type context can include equality constraints of the form ``t1 ~ t2``,
+which denote that the types ``t1`` and ``t2`` need to be the same. In
+the presence of type families, whether two types are equal cannot
+generally be decided locally. Hence, the contexts of function signatures
+may include equality constraints, as in the following example: ::
+
+    sumCollects :: (Collects c1, Collects c2, Elem c1 ~ Elem c2) => c1 -> c2 -> c2
+
+where we require that the element type of ``c1`` and ``c2`` are the
+same. In general, the types ``t1`` and ``t2`` of an equality constraint
+may be arbitrary monotypes; i.e., they may not contain any quantifiers,
+independent of whether higher-rank types are otherwise enabled.
+
+Equality constraints can also appear in class and instance contexts. The
+former enable a simple translation of programs using functional
+dependencies into programs using family synonyms instead. The general
+idea is to rewrite a class declaration of the form ::
+
+    class C a b | a -> b
+
+to ::
+
+    class (F a ~ b) => C a b where
+      type F a
+
+That is, we represent every functional dependency (FD) ``a1 .. an -> b``
+by an FD type family ``F a1 .. an`` and a superclass context equality
+``F a1 .. an ~ b``, essentially giving a name to the functional
+dependency. In class instances, we define the type instances of FD
+families in accordance with the class head. Method signatures are not
+affected by that process.
+
+.. index::
+   pair: Type equality constraints; kind heterogeneous
+
+Heterogeneous equality
+----------------------
+
+GHC also supports *kind-heterogeneous* equality, which relates two types of
+potentially different kinds. Heterogeneous equality is spelled ``~~``. Here
+are the kinds of ``~`` and ``~~`` to better understand their difference: ::
+
+  (~)  :: forall k. k -> k -> Constraint
+  (~~) :: forall k1 k2. k1 -> k2 -> Constraint
+
+Users will most likely want ``~``, but ``~~`` is available if GHC cannot know,
+a priori, that the two types of interest have the same kind. Evidence that
+``(a :: k1) ~~ (b :: k2)`` tells GHC both that ``k1`` and ``k2`` are the same
+and that ``a`` and ``b`` are the same.
+
+Because ``~`` is the more common equality relation, GHC prints out ``~~`` like
+``~`` unless :ghc-flag:`-fprint-equality-relations` is set.
+
+Unlifted heterogeneous equality
+-------------------------------
+
+Internal to GHC is yet a third equality relation ``(~#)``. It is heterogeneous
+(like ``~~``) and is used only internally. It may appear in error messages
+and other output only when :ghc-flag:`-fprint-equality-relations` is enabled.
+
+.. _coercible:
+
+The ``Coercible`` constraint
+----------------------------
+
+The constraint ``Coercible t1 t2`` is similar to ``t1 ~ t2``, but
+denotes representational equality between ``t1`` and ``t2`` in the sense
+of Roles (:ref:`roles`). It is exported by :base-ref:`Data.Coerce.`, which also
+contains the documentation. More details and discussion can be found in the
+paper
+`"Safe Coercions" <https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/uploads/prod/2018/05/coercible-JFP.pdf>`__.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/existential_quantification.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/existential_quantification.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e4c5a79
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/existential_quantification.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,259 @@
+.. _existential-quantification:
+
+Existentially quantified data constructors
+------------------------------------------
+
+.. extension:: ExistentialQuantification
+    :shortdesc: Enable liberalised type synonyms.
+
+    :implies: :extension:`ExplicitForAll`
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Allow existentially quantified type variables in types.
+
+The idea of using existential quantification in data type declarations
+was suggested by Perry, and implemented in Hope+ (Nigel Perry, *The
+Implementation of Practical Functional Programming Languages*, PhD
+Thesis, University of London, 1991). It was later formalised by Laufer
+and Odersky (*Polymorphic type inference and abstract data types*,
+TOPLAS, 16(5), pp. 1411-1430, 1994). It's been in Lennart Augustsson's
+``hbc`` Haskell compiler for several years, and proved very useful.
+Here's the idea. Consider the declaration: ::
+
+      data Foo = forall a. MkFoo a (a -> Bool)
+               | Nil
+
+The data type ``Foo`` has two constructors with types: ::
+
+      MkFoo :: forall a. a -> (a -> Bool) -> Foo
+      Nil   :: Foo
+
+Notice that the type variable ``a`` in the type of ``MkFoo`` does not
+appear in the data type itself, which is plain ``Foo``. For example, the
+following expression is fine: ::
+
+      [MkFoo 3 even, MkFoo 'c' isUpper] :: [Foo]
+
+Here, ``(MkFoo 3 even)`` packages an integer with a function ``even``
+that maps an integer to ``Bool``; and ``MkFoo 'c'
+isUpper`` packages a character with a compatible function. These two
+things are each of type ``Foo`` and can be put in a list.
+
+What can we do with a value of type ``Foo``? In particular, what
+happens when we pattern-match on ``MkFoo``? ::
+
+      f (MkFoo val fn) = ???
+
+Since all we know about ``val`` and ``fn`` is that they are compatible,
+the only (useful) thing we can do with them is to apply ``fn`` to
+``val`` to get a boolean. For example: ::
+
+      f :: Foo -> Bool
+      f (MkFoo val fn) = fn val
+
+What this allows us to do is to package heterogeneous values together
+with a bunch of functions that manipulate them, and then treat that
+collection of packages in a uniform manner. You can express quite a bit
+of object-oriented-like programming this way.
+
+.. _existential:
+
+Why existential?
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+What has this to do with *existential* quantification? Simply that
+``MkFoo`` has the (nearly) isomorphic type ::
+
+      MkFoo :: (exists a . (a, a -> Bool)) -> Foo
+
+But Haskell programmers can safely think of the ordinary *universally*
+quantified type given above, thereby avoiding adding a new existential
+quantification construct.
+
+.. _existential-with-context:
+
+Existentials and type classes
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+An easy extension is to allow arbitrary contexts before the constructor.
+For example: ::
+
+    data Baz = forall a. Eq a => Baz1 a a
+             | forall b. Show b => Baz2 b (b -> b)
+
+The two constructors have the types you'd expect: ::
+
+    Baz1 :: forall a. Eq a => a -> a -> Baz
+    Baz2 :: forall b. Show b => b -> (b -> b) -> Baz
+
+But when pattern matching on ``Baz1`` the matched values can be compared
+for equality, and when pattern matching on ``Baz2`` the first matched
+value can be converted to a string (as well as applying the function to
+it). So this program is legal: ::
+
+      f :: Baz -> String
+      f (Baz1 p q) | p == q    = "Yes"
+                   | otherwise = "No"
+      f (Baz2 v fn)            = show (fn v)
+
+Operationally, in a dictionary-passing implementation, the constructors
+``Baz1`` and ``Baz2`` must store the dictionaries for ``Eq`` and
+``Show`` respectively, and extract it on pattern matching.
+
+.. _existential-records:
+
+Record Constructors
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+GHC allows existentials to be used with records syntax as well. For
+example: ::
+
+    data Counter a = forall self. NewCounter
+        { _this    :: self
+        , _inc     :: self -> self
+        , _display :: self -> IO ()
+        , tag      :: a
+        }
+
+Here ``tag`` is a public field, with a well-typed selector function
+``tag :: Counter a -> a``. The ``self`` type is hidden from the outside;
+any attempt to apply ``_this``, ``_inc`` or ``_display`` as functions
+will raise a compile-time error. In other words, *GHC defines a record
+selector function only for fields whose type does not mention the
+existentially-quantified variables*. (This example used an underscore in
+the fields for which record selectors will not be defined, but that is
+only programming style; GHC ignores them.)
+
+To make use of these hidden fields, we need to create some helper
+functions: ::
+
+    inc :: Counter a -> Counter a
+    inc (NewCounter x i d t) = NewCounter
+        { _this = i x, _inc = i, _display = d, tag = t }
+
+    display :: Counter a -> IO ()
+    display NewCounter{ _this = x, _display = d } = d x
+
+Now we can define counters with different underlying implementations: ::
+
+    counterA :: Counter String
+    counterA = NewCounter
+        { _this = 0, _inc = (1+), _display = print, tag = "A" }
+
+    counterB :: Counter String
+    counterB = NewCounter
+        { _this = "", _inc = ('#':), _display = putStrLn, tag = "B" }
+
+    main = do
+        display (inc counterA)         -- prints "1"
+        display (inc (inc counterB))   -- prints "##"
+
+Record update syntax is supported for existentials (and GADTs): ::
+
+    setTag :: Counter a -> a -> Counter a
+    setTag obj t = obj{ tag = t }
+
+The rule for record update is this:
+
+    the types of the updated fields may mention only the universally-quantified
+    type variables of the data constructor. For GADTs, the field may mention
+    only types that appear as a simple type-variable argument in the
+    constructor's result type.
+
+For example: ::
+
+    data T a b where { T1 { f1::a, f2::b, f3::(b,c) } :: T a b } -- c is existential
+    upd1 t x = t { f1=x }   -- OK:   upd1 :: T a b -> a' -> T a' b
+    upd2 t x = t { f3=x }   -- BAD   (f3's type mentions c, which is
+                            --        existentially quantified)
+
+    data G a b where { G1 { g1::a, g2::c } :: G a [c] }
+    upd3 g x = g { g1=x }   -- OK:   upd3 :: G a b -> c -> G c b
+    upd4 g x = g { g2=x }   -- BAD (f2's type mentions c, which is not a simple
+                            --      type-variable argument in G1's result type)
+
+Restrictions
+~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+There are several restrictions on the ways in which existentially-quantified
+constructors can be used.
+
+-  When pattern matching, each pattern match introduces a new, distinct,
+   type for each existential type variable. These types cannot be
+   unified with any other type, nor can they escape from the scope of
+   the pattern match. For example, these fragments are incorrect: ::
+
+       f1 (MkFoo a f) = a
+
+   Here, the type bound by ``MkFoo`` "escapes", because ``a`` is the
+   result of ``f1``. One way to see why this is wrong is to ask what
+   type ``f1`` has: ::
+
+         f1 :: Foo -> a             -- Weird!
+
+   What is this "``a``" in the result type? Clearly we don't mean this: ::
+
+         f1 :: forall a. Foo -> a   -- Wrong!
+
+   The original program is just plain wrong. Here's another sort of
+   error ::
+
+         f2 (Baz1 a b) (Baz1 p q) = a==q
+
+   It's ok to say ``a==b`` or ``p==q``, but ``a==q`` is wrong because it
+   equates the two distinct types arising from the two ``Baz1``
+   constructors.
+
+-  You can't pattern-match on an existentially quantified constructor in
+   a ``let`` or ``where`` group of bindings. So this is illegal: ::
+
+         f3 x = a==b where { Baz1 a b = x }
+
+   Instead, use a ``case`` expression: ::
+
+         f3 x = case x of Baz1 a b -> a==b
+
+   In general, you can only pattern-match on an existentially-quantified
+   constructor in a ``case`` expression or in the patterns of a function
+   definition. The reason for this restriction is really an
+   implementation one. Type-checking binding groups is already a
+   nightmare without existentials complicating the picture. Also an
+   existential pattern binding at the top level of a module doesn't make
+   sense, because it's not clear how to prevent the
+   existentially-quantified type "escaping". So for now, there's a
+   simple-to-state restriction. We'll see how annoying it is.
+
+-  You can't use existential quantification for ``newtype``
+   declarations. So this is illegal: ::
+
+         newtype T = forall a. Ord a => MkT a
+
+   Reason: a value of type ``T`` must be represented as a pair of a
+   dictionary for ``Ord t`` and a value of type ``t``. That contradicts
+   the idea that ``newtype`` should have no concrete representation. You
+   can get just the same efficiency and effect by using ``data`` instead
+   of ``newtype``. If there is no overloading involved, then there is
+   more of a case for allowing an existentially-quantified ``newtype``,
+   because the ``data`` version does carry an implementation cost, but
+   single-field existentially quantified constructors aren't much use.
+   So the simple restriction (no existential stuff on ``newtype``)
+   stands, unless there are convincing reasons to change it.
+
+-  You can't use ``deriving`` to define instances of a data type with
+   existentially quantified data constructors. Reason: in most cases it
+   would not make sense. For example:; ::
+
+       data T = forall a. MkT [a] deriving( Eq )
+
+   To derive ``Eq`` in the standard way we would need to have equality
+   between the single component of two ``MkT`` constructors: ::
+
+       instance Eq T where
+         (MkT a) == (MkT b) = ???
+
+   But ``a`` and ``b`` have distinct types, and so can't be compared.
+   It's just about possible to imagine examples in which the derived
+   instance would make sense, but it seems altogether simpler simply to
+   prohibit such declarations. Define your own instances!
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/explicit_forall.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/explicit_forall.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..38c6e0f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/explicit_forall.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+.. _explicit-foralls:
+
+Explicit universal quantification (forall)
+------------------------------------------
+
+.. extension:: ExplicitForAll
+    :shortdesc: Enable explicit universal quantification.
+        Implied by :extension:`ScopedTypeVariables`, :extension:`LiberalTypeSynonyms`,
+        :extension:`RankNTypes` and :extension:`ExistentialQuantification`.
+
+    :since: 6.12.1
+
+    Allow use of the ``forall`` keyword in places where universal quantification
+    is implicit.
+
+Haskell type signatures are implicitly quantified. When the language
+option :extension:`ExplicitForAll` is used, the keyword ``forall`` allows us to
+say exactly what this means. For example: ::
+
+    g :: b -> b
+
+means this: ::
+
+    g :: forall b. (b -> b)
+
+The two are treated identically, except that the latter may bring type variables
+into scope (see :ref:`scoped-type-variables`).
+
+This extension also enables explicit quantification of type and kind variables
+in :ref:`data-instance-declarations`, :ref:`type-instance-declarations`,
+:ref:`closed-type-families`, :ref:`assoc-inst`, and :ref:`rewrite-rules`.
+
+Notes:
+
+- As well in type signatures, you can also use an explicit ``forall``
+  in an instance declaration: ::
+
+      instance forall a. Eq a => Eq [a] where ...
+
+- If the :ghc-flag:`-Wunused-foralls` flag is enabled, a warning will be emitted
+  when you write a type variable in an explicit ``forall`` statement that is
+  otherwise unused. For instance: ::
+
+    g :: forall a b. (b -> b)
+
+  would warn about the unused type variable `a`.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/explicit_namespaces.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/explicit_namespaces.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d8b8bf7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/explicit_namespaces.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+.. _explicit-namespaces:
+
+Explicit namespaces in import/export
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. extension:: ExplicitNamespaces
+    :shortdesc: Enable using the keyword ``type`` to specify the namespace of
+        entries in imports and exports (:ref:`explicit-namespaces`).
+        Implied by :extension:`TypeOperators` and :extension:`TypeFamilies`.
+
+    :since: 7.6.1
+
+    Enable use of explicit namespaces in module export lists.
+
+In an import or export list, such as ::
+
+      module M( f, (++) ) where ...
+        import N( f, (++) )
+        ...
+
+the entities ``f`` and ``(++)`` are *values*. However, with type
+operators (:ref:`type-operators`) it becomes possible to declare
+``(++)`` as a *type constructor*. In that case, how would you export or
+import it?
+
+The :extension:`ExplicitNamespaces` extension allows you to prefix the name of
+a type constructor in an import or export list with "``type``" to
+disambiguate this case, thus: ::
+
+      module M( f, type (++) ) where ...
+        import N( f, type (++) )
+        ...
+      module N( f, type (++) ) where
+        data family a ++ b = L a | R b
+
+The extension :extension:`ExplicitNamespaces` is implied by
+:extension:`TypeOperators` and (for some reason) by :extension:`TypeFamilies`.
+
+In addition, with :extension:`PatternSynonyms` you can prefix the name of a
+data constructor in an import or export list with the keyword
+``pattern``, to allow the import or export of a data constructor without
+its parent type constructor (see :ref:`patsyn-impexp`).
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/ffi-chap.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/ffi.rst
index fb001a5..9874097 100644
--- a/docs/users_guide/ffi-chap.rst
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/ffi.rst
@@ -125,14 +125,23 @@ are:
    | Argument Type                  | reads are | writes are  | reads are | writes are    |
    +================================+===========+=============+===========+===============+
    | ``Array#``                     | Unsound   | Unsound     | Sound     | Unsound       |
+   +--------------------------------+-----------+-------------+-----------+---------------+
    | ``MutableArray#``              | Unsound   | Unsound     | Sound     | Unsound       |
+   +--------------------------------+-----------+-------------+-----------+---------------+
    | ``SmallArray#``                | Unsound   | Unsound     | Sound     | Unsound       |
+   +--------------------------------+-----------+-------------+-----------+---------------+
    | ``MutableSmallArray#``         | Unsound   | Unsound     | Sound     | Unsound       |
+   +--------------------------------+-----------+-------------+-----------+---------------+
    | ``ArrayArray#``                | Unsound   | Unsound     | Sound     | Unsound       |
+   +--------------------------------+-----------+-------------+-----------+---------------+
    | ``MutableArrayArray#``         | Unsound   | Unsound     | Sound     | Unsound       |
+   +--------------------------------+-----------+-------------+-----------+---------------+
    | unpinned ``ByteArray#``        | Unsound   | Unsound     | Sound     | Unsound       |
+   +--------------------------------+-----------+-------------+-----------+---------------+
    | unpinned ``MutableByteArray#`` | Unsound   | Unsound     | Sound     | Sound         |
+   +--------------------------------+-----------+-------------+-----------+---------------+
    | pinned ``ByteArray#``          | Sound     | Unsound     | Sound     | Unsound       |
+   +--------------------------------+-----------+-------------+-----------+---------------+
    | pinned ``MutableByteArray#``   | Sound     | Sound       | Sound     | Sound         |
    +--------------------------------+-----------+-------------+-----------+---------------+
 
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/flexible_contexts.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/flexible_contexts.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..11f5540
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/flexible_contexts.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
+.. _superclass-rules:
+
+Flexible contexts
+-----------------
+
+.. extension:: FlexibleContexts
+    :shortdesc: Enable flexible contexts.
+
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Allow the use of complex constraints in class declaration contexts.
+
+In Haskell 98 the context of a class declaration (which introduces
+superclasses) must be simple; that is, each predicate must consist of a
+class applied to type variables. The extension :extension:`FlexibleContexts`
+(:ref:`flexible-contexts`) lifts this restriction, so that the only
+restriction on the context in a class declaration is that the class
+hierarchy must be acyclic. So these class declarations are OK: ::
+
+      class Functor (m k) => FiniteMap m k where
+        ...
+
+      class (Monad m, Monad (t m)) => Transform t m where
+        lift :: m a -> (t m) a
+
+As in Haskell 98, the class hierarchy must be acyclic. However, the
+definition of "acyclic" involves only the superclass relationships. For
+example, this is okay: ::
+
+      class C a where
+        op :: D b => a -> b -> b
+
+      class C a => D a where ...
+
+Here, ``C`` is a superclass of ``D``, but it's OK for a class operation
+``op`` of ``C`` to mention ``D``. (It would not be OK for ``D`` to be a
+superclass of ``C``.)
+
+With the extension that adds a :ref:`kind of
+constraints <constraint-kind>`, you can write more exotic superclass
+definitions. The superclass cycle check is even more liberal in these
+case. For example, this is OK: ::
+
+      class A cls c where
+        meth :: cls c => c -> c
+
+      class A B c => B c where
+
+A superclass context for a class ``C`` is allowed if, after expanding
+type synonyms to their right-hand-sides, and uses of classes (other than
+``C``) to their superclasses, ``C`` does not occur syntactically in the
+context.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/flexible_contexts_signature.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/flexible_contexts_signature.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cd2bd28
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/flexible_contexts_signature.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+.. _flexible-contexts:
+
+The context of a type signature
+-------------------------------
+
+The :extension:`FlexibleContexts` extension lifts the Haskell 98 restriction that
+the type-class constraints in a type signature must have the form *(class
+type-variable)* or *(class (type-variable type1 type2 ... typen))*. With
+:extension:`FlexibleContexts` these type signatures are perfectly okay
+::
+
+      g :: Eq [a] => ...
+      g :: Ord (T a ()) => ...
+
+The flag :extension:`FlexibleContexts` also lifts the corresponding restriction
+on class declarations (:ref:`superclass-rules`) and instance
+declarations (:ref:`instance-rules`).
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/functional_dependencies.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/functional_dependencies.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7926c47
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/functional_dependencies.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,305 @@
+.. _functional-dependencies:
+
+Functional dependencies
+-----------------------
+
+.. extension:: FunctionalDependencies
+    :shortdesc: Enable functional dependencies.
+        Implies :extension:`MultiParamTypeClasses`.
+
+    :implies: :extension:`MultiParamTypeClasses`
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Allow use of functional dependencies in class declarations.
+
+Functional dependencies are implemented as described by Mark Jones in
+[Jones2000]_.
+
+Functional dependencies are introduced by a vertical bar in the syntax
+of a class declaration; e.g. ::
+
+      class (Monad m) => MonadState s m | m -> s where ...
+
+      class Foo a b c | a b -> c where ...
+
+More documentation can be found in the `Haskell Wiki
+<https://wiki.haskell.org/Functional_dependencies>`_.
+
+.. [Jones2000]
+    "`Type Classes with Functional
+    Dependencies <https://web.cecs.pdx.edu/~mpj/pubs/fundeps.html>`__",
+    Mark P. Jones, In *Proceedings of the 9th European Symposium on Programming*,
+    ESOP 2000, Berlin, Germany, March 2000, Springer-Verlag LNCS 1782, .
+
+Rules for functional dependencies
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+In a class declaration, all of the class type variables must be
+reachable (in the sense mentioned in :ref:`flexible-contexts`) from the
+free variables of each method type. For example: ::
+
+      class Coll s a where
+        empty  :: s
+        insert :: s -> a -> s
+
+is not OK, because the type of ``empty`` doesn't mention ``a``.
+Functional dependencies can make the type variable reachable: ::
+
+      class Coll s a | s -> a where
+        empty  :: s
+        insert :: s -> a -> s
+
+Alternatively ``Coll`` might be rewritten ::
+
+      class Coll s a where
+        empty  :: s a
+        insert :: s a -> a -> s a
+
+which makes the connection between the type of a collection of ``a``'s
+(namely ``(s a)``) and the element type ``a``. Occasionally this really
+doesn't work, in which case you can split the class like this: ::
+
+      class CollE s where
+        empty  :: s
+
+      class CollE s => Coll s a where
+        insert :: s -> a -> s
+
+Background on functional dependencies
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The following description of the motivation and use of functional
+dependencies is taken from the Hugs user manual, reproduced here (with
+minor changes) by kind permission of Mark Jones.
+
+Consider the following class, intended as part of a library for
+collection types: ::
+
+       class Collects e ce where
+           empty  :: ce
+           insert :: e -> ce -> ce
+           member :: e -> ce -> Bool
+
+The type variable ``e`` used here represents the element type, while ``ce`` is
+the type of the container itself. Within this framework, we might want to define
+instances of this class for lists or characteristic functions (both of which can
+be used to represent collections of any equality type), bit sets (which can be
+used to represent collections of characters), or hash tables (which can be used
+to represent any collection whose elements have a hash function). Omitting
+standard implementation details, this would lead to the following declarations: ::
+
+       instance Eq e => Collects e [e] where ...
+       instance Eq e => Collects e (e -> Bool) where ...
+       instance Collects Char BitSet where ...
+       instance (Hashable e, Collects a ce)
+                  => Collects e (Array Int ce) where ...
+
+All this looks quite promising; we have a class and a range of
+interesting implementations. Unfortunately, there are some serious
+problems with the class declaration. First, the empty function has an
+ambiguous type: ::
+
+       empty :: Collects e ce => ce
+
+By "ambiguous" we mean that there is a type variable ``e`` that appears on
+the left of the ``=>`` symbol, but not on the right. The problem with
+this is that, according to the theoretical foundations of Haskell
+overloading, we cannot guarantee a well-defined semantics for any term
+with an ambiguous type.
+
+We can sidestep this specific problem by removing the empty member from
+the class declaration. However, although the remaining members, insert
+and member, do not have ambiguous types, we still run into problems when
+we try to use them. For example, consider the following two functions: ::
+
+       f x y = insert x . insert y
+       g     = f True 'a'
+
+for which GHC infers the following types: ::
+
+       f :: (Collects a c, Collects b c) => a -> b -> c -> c
+       g :: (Collects Bool c, Collects Char c) => c -> c
+
+Notice that the type for ``f`` allows the two parameters ``x`` and ``y`` to be
+assigned different types, even though it attempts to insert each of the
+two values, one after the other, into the same collection. If we're
+trying to model collections that contain only one type of value, then
+this is clearly an inaccurate type. Worse still, the definition for g is
+accepted, without causing a type error. As a result, the error in this
+code will not be flagged at the point where it appears. Instead, it will
+show up only when we try to use ``g``, which might even be in a different
+module.
+
+An attempt to use constructor classes
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Faced with the problems described above, some Haskell programmers might
+be tempted to use something like the following version of the class
+declaration: ::
+
+       class Collects e c where
+          empty  :: c e
+          insert :: e -> c e -> c e
+          member :: e -> c e -> Bool
+
+The key difference here is that we abstract over the type constructor ``c``
+that is used to form the collection type ``c e``, and not over that
+collection type itself, represented by ``ce`` in the original class
+declaration. This avoids the immediate problems that we mentioned above:
+empty has type ``Collects e c => c e``, which is not ambiguous.
+
+The function ``f`` from the previous section has a more accurate type: ::
+
+       f :: (Collects e c) => e -> e -> c e -> c e
+
+The function ``g`` from the previous section is now rejected with a type
+error as we would hope because the type of ``f`` does not allow the two
+arguments to have different types. This, then, is an example of a
+multiple parameter class that does actually work quite well in practice,
+without ambiguity problems. There is, however, a catch. This version of
+the ``Collects`` class is nowhere near as general as the original class
+seemed to be: only one of the four instances for ``Collects`` given
+above can be used with this version of Collects because only one of them—the
+instance for lists—has a collection type that can be written in the form ``c
+e``, for some type constructor ``c``, and element type ``e``.
+
+Adding functional dependencies
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+To get a more useful version of the ``Collects`` class, GHC provides a
+mechanism that allows programmers to specify dependencies between the
+parameters of a multiple parameter class (For readers with an interest
+in theoretical foundations and previous work: The use of dependency
+information can be seen both as a generalisation of the proposal for
+"parametric type classes" that was put forward by Chen, Hudak, and
+Odersky, or as a special case of Mark Jones's later framework for
+"improvement" of qualified types. The underlying ideas are also
+discussed in a more theoretical and abstract setting in a manuscript
+[Jones1999]_, where they are identified as one point in a general design
+space for systems of implicit parameterisation). To start with an
+abstract example, consider a declaration such as: ::
+
+       class C a b where ...
+
+.. [Jones1999]
+    "`Exploring the Design Space for Type-based Implicit Parameterization
+    <https://web.cecs.pdx.edu/~mpj/pubs/fdtr.html>`__", Mark P. Jones, Oregon
+    Graduate Institute of Science & Technology, Technical Report, July 1999.
+
+which tells us simply that ``C`` can be thought of as a binary relation on
+types (or type constructors, depending on the kinds of ``a`` and ``b``). Extra
+clauses can be included in the definition of classes to add information
+about dependencies between parameters, as in the following examples: ::
+
+       class D a b | a -> b where ...
+       class E a b | a -> b, b -> a where ...
+
+The notation ``a -> b`` used here between the ``|`` and ``where`` symbols —
+not to be confused with a function type — indicates that the ``a``
+parameter uniquely determines the ``b`` parameter, and might be read as "``a``
+determines ``b``." Thus ``D`` is not just a relation, but actually a (partial)
+function. Similarly, from the two dependencies that are included in the
+definition of ``E``, we can see that ``E`` represents a (partial) one-to-one
+mapping between types.
+
+More generally, dependencies take the form ``x1 ... xn -> y1 ... ym``,
+where ``x1``, ..., ``xn``, and ``y1``, ..., ``yn`` are type variables with n>0 and m>=0,
+meaning that the ``y`` parameters are uniquely determined by the ``x``
+parameters. Spaces can be used as separators if more than one variable
+appears on any single side of a dependency, as in ``t -> a b``. Note
+that a class may be annotated with multiple dependencies using commas as
+separators, as in the definition of ``E`` above. Some dependencies that we
+can write in this notation are redundant, and will be rejected because
+they don't serve any useful purpose, and may instead indicate an error
+in the program. Examples of dependencies like this include ``a -> a``,
+``a -> a a``, ``a ->``, etc. There can also be some redundancy if
+multiple dependencies are given, as in ``a->b``, ``b->c``, ``a->c``, and
+in which some subset implies the remaining dependencies. Examples like
+this are not treated as errors. Note that dependencies appear only in
+class declarations, and not in any other part of the language. In
+particular, the syntax for instance declarations, class constraints, and
+types is completely unchanged.
+
+By including dependencies in a class declaration, we provide a mechanism
+for the programmer to specify each multiple parameter class more
+precisely. The compiler, on the other hand, is responsible for ensuring
+that the set of instances that are in scope at any given point in the
+program is consistent with any declared dependencies. For example, the
+following pair of instance declarations cannot appear together in the
+same scope because they violate the dependency for ``D``, even though either
+one on its own would be acceptable: ::
+
+       instance D Bool Int where ...
+       instance D Bool Char where ...
+
+Note also that the following declaration is not allowed, even by itself: ::
+
+       instance D [a] b where ...
+
+The problem here is that this instance would allow one particular choice
+of ``[a]`` to be associated with more than one choice for ``b``, which
+contradicts the dependency specified in the definition of ``D``. More
+generally, this means that, in any instance of the form: ::
+
+       instance D t s where ...
+
+for some particular types ``t`` and ``s``, the only variables that can appear in
+``s`` are the ones that appear in ``t``, and hence, if the type ``t`` is known,
+then ``s`` will be uniquely determined.
+
+The benefit of including dependency information is that it allows us to
+define more general multiple parameter classes, without ambiguity
+problems, and with the benefit of more accurate types. To illustrate
+this, we return to the collection class example, and annotate the
+original definition of ``Collects`` with a simple dependency: ::
+
+       class Collects e ce | ce -> e where
+          empty  :: ce
+          insert :: e -> ce -> ce
+          member :: e -> ce -> Bool
+
+The dependency ``ce -> e`` here specifies that the type ``e`` of elements is
+uniquely determined by the type of the collection ``ce``. Note that both
+parameters of Collects are of kind ``Type``; there are no constructor classes
+here. Note too that all of the instances of ``Collects`` that we gave earlier
+can be used together with this new definition.
+
+What about the ambiguity problems that we encountered with the original
+definition? The empty function still has type ``Collects e ce => ce``, but
+it is no longer necessary to regard that as an ambiguous type: Although
+the variable ``e`` does not appear on the right of the ``=>`` symbol, the
+dependency for class ``Collects`` tells us that it is uniquely determined by
+``ce``, which does appear on the right of the ``=>`` symbol. Hence the context
+in which empty is used can still give enough information to determine
+types for both ``ce`` and ``e``, without ambiguity. More generally, we need only
+regard a type as ambiguous if it contains a variable on the left of the
+``=>`` that is not uniquely determined (either directly or indirectly) by
+the variables on the right.
+
+Dependencies also help to produce more accurate types for user defined
+functions, and hence to provide earlier detection of errors, and less
+cluttered types for programmers to work with. Recall the previous
+definition for a function ``f``: ::
+
+       f x y = insert x y = insert x . insert y
+
+for which we originally obtained a type: ::
+
+       f :: (Collects a c, Collects b c) => a -> b -> c -> c
+
+Given the dependency information that we have for ``Collects``, however, we
+can deduce that ``a`` and ``b`` must be equal because they both appear as the
+second parameter in a ``Collects`` constraint with the same first parameter
+``c``. Hence we can infer a shorter and more accurate type for ``f``: ::
+
+       f :: (Collects a c) => a -> a -> c -> c
+
+In a similar way, the earlier definition of ``g`` will now be flagged as a
+type error.
+
+Although we have given only a few examples here, it should be clear that
+the addition of dependency information can help to make multiple
+parameter classes more useful in practice, avoiding ambiguity problems,
+and allowing more general sets of instance declarations.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/gadt.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/gadt.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c8f0e75
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/gadt.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,138 @@
+.. _gadt:
+
+Generalised Algebraic Data Types (GADTs)
+----------------------------------------
+
+.. extension:: GADTs
+    :shortdesc: Enable generalised algebraic data types.
+        Implies :extension:`GADTSyntax` and :extension:`MonoLocalBinds`.
+
+    :implies: :extension:`MonoLocalBinds`, :extension:`GADTSyntax`
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Allow use of Generalised Algebraic Data Types (GADTs).
+
+Generalised Algebraic Data Types generalise ordinary algebraic data
+types by allowing constructors to have richer return types. Here is an
+example: ::
+
+      data Term a where
+          Lit    :: Int -> Term Int
+          Succ   :: Term Int -> Term Int
+          IsZero :: Term Int -> Term Bool
+          If     :: Term Bool -> Term a -> Term a -> Term a
+          Pair   :: Term a -> Term b -> Term (a,b)
+
+Notice that the return type of the constructors is not always
+``Term a``, as is the case with ordinary data types. This generality
+allows us to write a well-typed ``eval`` function for these ``Terms``: ::
+
+      eval :: Term a -> a
+      eval (Lit i)      = i
+      eval (Succ t)     = 1 + eval t
+      eval (IsZero t)   = eval t == 0
+      eval (If b e1 e2) = if eval b then eval e1 else eval e2
+      eval (Pair e1 e2) = (eval e1, eval e2)
+
+The key point about GADTs is that *pattern matching causes type
+refinement*. For example, in the right hand side of the equation ::
+
+      eval :: Term a -> a
+      eval (Lit i) =  ...
+
+the type ``a`` is refined to ``Int``. That's the whole point! A precise
+specification of the type rules is beyond what this user manual aspires
+to, but the design closely follows that described in the paper `Simple
+unification-based type inference for
+GADTs <http://research.microsoft.com/%7Esimonpj/papers/gadt/>`__, (ICFP
+2006). The general principle is this: *type refinement is only carried
+out based on user-supplied type annotations*. So if no type signature is
+supplied for ``eval``, no type refinement happens, and lots of obscure
+error messages will occur. However, the refinement is quite general. For
+example, if we had: ::
+
+      eval :: Term a -> a -> a
+      eval (Lit i) j =  i+j
+
+the pattern match causes the type ``a`` to be refined to ``Int``
+(because of the type of the constructor ``Lit``), and that refinement
+also applies to the type of ``j``, and the result type of the ``case``
+expression. Hence the addition ``i+j`` is legal.
+
+These and many other examples are given in papers by Hongwei Xi, and Tim
+Sheard. There is a longer introduction `on the
+wiki <http://www.haskell.org/haskellwiki/GADT>`__, and Ralf Hinze's `Fun
+with phantom
+types <http://www.cs.ox.ac.uk/ralf.hinze/publications/With.pdf>`__ also
+has a number of examples. Note that papers may use different notation to
+that implemented in GHC.
+
+The rest of this section outlines the extensions to GHC that support
+GADTs. The extension is enabled with :extension:`GADTs`. The :extension:`GADTs` extension
+also sets :extension:`GADTSyntax` and :extension:`MonoLocalBinds`.
+
+-  A GADT can only be declared using GADT-style syntax
+   (:ref:`gadt-style`); the old Haskell 98 syntax for data declarations
+   always declares an ordinary data type. The result type of each
+   constructor must begin with the type constructor being defined, but
+   for a GADT the arguments to the type constructor can be arbitrary
+   monotypes. For example, in the ``Term`` data type above, the type of
+   each constructor must end with ``Term ty``, but the ``ty`` need not
+   be a type variable (e.g. the ``Lit`` constructor).
+
+-  It is permitted to declare an ordinary algebraic data type using
+   GADT-style syntax. What makes a GADT into a GADT is not the syntax,
+   but rather the presence of data constructors whose result type is not
+   just ``T a b``.
+
+-  You cannot use a ``deriving`` clause for a GADT; only for an ordinary
+   data type.
+
+-  As mentioned in :ref:`gadt-style`, record syntax is supported. For
+   example:
+
+   ::
+
+         data Term a where
+             Lit    :: { val  :: Int }      -> Term Int
+             Succ   :: { num  :: Term Int } -> Term Int
+             Pred   :: { num  :: Term Int } -> Term Int
+             IsZero :: { arg  :: Term Int } -> Term Bool
+             Pair   :: { arg1 :: Term a
+                       , arg2 :: Term b
+                       }                    -> Term (a,b)
+             If     :: { cnd  :: Term Bool
+                       , tru  :: Term a
+                       , fls  :: Term a
+                       }                    -> Term a
+
+   However, for GADTs there is the following additional constraint:
+   every constructor that has a field ``f`` must have the same result
+   type (modulo alpha conversion) Hence, in the above example, we cannot
+   merge the ``num`` and ``arg`` fields above into a single name.
+   Although their field types are both ``Term Int``, their selector
+   functions actually have different types:
+
+   ::
+
+         num :: Term Int -> Term Int
+         arg :: Term Bool -> Term Int
+
+-  When pattern-matching against data constructors drawn from a GADT,
+   for example in a ``case`` expression, the following rules apply:
+
+   -  The type of the scrutinee must be rigid.
+
+   -  The type of the entire ``case`` expression must be rigid.
+
+   -  The type of any free variable mentioned in any of the ``case``
+      alternatives must be rigid.
+
+   A type is "rigid" if it is completely known to the compiler at its
+   binding site. The easiest way to ensure that a variable a rigid type
+   is to give it a type signature. For more precise details see `Simple
+   unification-based type inference for
+   GADTs <http://research.microsoft.com/%7Esimonpj/papers/gadt/>`__. The
+   criteria implemented by GHC are given in the Appendix.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/gadt_syntax.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/gadt_syntax.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f89888f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/gadt_syntax.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,254 @@
+.. _gadt-style:
+
+Declaring data types with explicit constructor signatures
+---------------------------------------------------------
+
+.. extension:: GADTSyntax
+    :shortdesc: Enable generalised algebraic data type syntax.
+
+    :since: 7.2.1
+
+    Allow the use of GADT syntax in data type definitions (but not GADTs
+    themselves; for this see :extension:`GADTs`)
+
+When the ``GADTSyntax`` extension is enabled, GHC allows you to declare
+an algebraic data type by giving the type signatures of constructors
+explicitly. For example: ::
+
+      data Maybe a where
+          Nothing :: Maybe a
+          Just    :: a -> Maybe a
+
+The form is called a "GADT-style declaration" because Generalised
+Algebraic Data Types, described in :ref:`gadt`, can only be declared
+using this form.
+
+Notice that GADT-style syntax generalises existential types
+(:ref:`existential-quantification`). For example, these two declarations
+are equivalent: ::
+
+      data Foo = forall a. MkFoo a (a -> Bool)
+      data Foo' where { MKFoo :: a -> (a->Bool) -> Foo' }
+
+Any data type that can be declared in standard Haskell 98 syntax can
+also be declared using GADT-style syntax. The choice is largely
+stylistic, but GADT-style declarations differ in one important respect:
+they treat class constraints on the data constructors differently.
+Specifically, if the constructor is given a type-class context, that
+context is made available by pattern matching. For example: ::
+
+      data Set a where
+        MkSet :: Eq a => [a] -> Set a
+
+      makeSet :: Eq a => [a] -> Set a
+      makeSet xs = MkSet (nub xs)
+
+      insert :: a -> Set a -> Set a
+      insert a (MkSet as) | a `elem` as = MkSet as
+                          | otherwise   = MkSet (a:as)
+
+A use of ``MkSet`` as a constructor (e.g. in the definition of
+``makeSet``) gives rise to a ``(Eq a)`` constraint, as you would expect.
+The new feature is that pattern-matching on ``MkSet`` (as in the
+definition of ``insert``) makes *available* an ``(Eq a)`` context. In
+implementation terms, the ``MkSet`` constructor has a hidden field that
+stores the ``(Eq a)`` dictionary that is passed to ``MkSet``; so when
+pattern-matching that dictionary becomes available for the right-hand
+side of the match. In the example, the equality dictionary is used to
+satisfy the equality constraint generated by the call to ``elem``, so
+that the type of ``insert`` itself has no ``Eq`` constraint.
+
+For example, one possible application is to reify dictionaries: ::
+
+       data NumInst a where
+         MkNumInst :: Num a => NumInst a
+
+       intInst :: NumInst Int
+       intInst = MkNumInst
+
+       plus :: NumInst a -> a -> a -> a
+       plus MkNumInst p q = p + q
+
+Here, a value of type ``NumInst a`` is equivalent to an explicit
+``(Num a)`` dictionary.
+
+All this applies to constructors declared using the syntax of
+:ref:`existential-with-context`. For example, the ``NumInst`` data type
+above could equivalently be declared like this: ::
+
+       data NumInst a
+          = Num a => MkNumInst (NumInst a)
+
+Notice that, unlike the situation when declaring an existential, there
+is no ``forall``, because the ``Num`` constrains the data type's
+universally quantified type variable ``a``. A constructor may have both
+universal and existential type variables: for example, the following two
+declarations are equivalent: ::
+
+       data T1 a
+        = forall b. (Num a, Eq b) => MkT1 a b
+       data T2 a where
+        MkT2 :: (Num a, Eq b) => a -> b -> T2 a
+
+All this behaviour contrasts with Haskell 98's peculiar treatment of
+contexts on a data type declaration (Section 4.2.1 of the Haskell 98
+Report). In Haskell 98 the definition ::
+
+      data Eq a => Set' a = MkSet' [a]
+
+gives ``MkSet'`` the same type as ``MkSet`` above. But instead of
+*making available* an ``(Eq a)`` constraint, pattern-matching on
+``MkSet'`` *requires* an ``(Eq a)`` constraint! GHC faithfully
+implements this behaviour, odd though it is. But for GADT-style
+declarations, GHC's behaviour is much more useful, as well as much more
+intuitive.
+
+The rest of this section gives further details about GADT-style data
+type declarations.
+
+-  The result type of each data constructor must begin with the type
+   constructor being defined. If the result type of all constructors has
+   the form ``T a1 ... an``, where ``a1 ... an`` are distinct type
+   variables, then the data type is *ordinary*; otherwise is a
+   *generalised* data type (:ref:`gadt`).
+
+-  As with other type signatures, you can give a single signature for
+   several data constructors. In this example we give a single signature
+   for ``T1`` and ``T2``: ::
+
+         data T a where
+           T1,T2 :: a -> T a
+           T3 :: T a
+
+-  The type signature of each constructor is independent, and is
+   implicitly universally quantified as usual. In particular, the type
+   variable(s) in the "``data T a where``" header have no scope, and
+   different constructors may have different universally-quantified type
+   variables: ::
+
+         data T a where        -- The 'a' has no scope
+           T1,T2 :: b -> T b   -- Means forall b. b -> T b
+           T3 :: T a           -- Means forall a. T a
+
+-  A constructor signature may mention type class constraints, which can
+   differ for different constructors. For example, this is fine: ::
+
+         data T a where
+           T1 :: Eq b => b -> b -> T b
+           T2 :: (Show c, Ix c) => c -> [c] -> T c
+
+   When pattern matching, these constraints are made available to
+   discharge constraints in the body of the match. For example: ::
+
+         f :: T a -> String
+         f (T1 x y) | x==y      = "yes"
+                    | otherwise = "no"
+         f (T2 a b)             = show a
+
+   Note that ``f`` is not overloaded; the ``Eq`` constraint arising from
+   the use of ``==`` is discharged by the pattern match on ``T1`` and
+   similarly the ``Show`` constraint arising from the use of ``show``.
+
+-  Unlike a Haskell-98-style data type declaration, the type variable(s)
+   in the "``data Set a where``" header have no scope. Indeed, one can
+   write a kind signature instead: ::
+
+         data Set :: Type -> Type where ...
+
+   or even a mixture of the two: ::
+
+         data Bar a :: (Type -> Type) -> Type where ...
+
+   The type variables (if given) may be explicitly kinded, so we could
+   also write the header for ``Foo`` like this: ::
+
+         data Bar a (b :: Type -> Type) where ...
+
+-  You can use strictness annotations, in the obvious places in the
+   constructor type: ::
+
+         data Term a where
+             Lit    :: !Int -> Term Int
+             If     :: Term Bool -> !(Term a) -> !(Term a) -> Term a
+             Pair   :: Term a -> Term b -> Term (a,b)
+
+-  You can use a ``deriving`` clause on a GADT-style data type
+   declaration. For example, these two declarations are equivalent ::
+
+         data Maybe1 a where {
+             Nothing1 :: Maybe1 a ;
+             Just1    :: a -> Maybe1 a
+           } deriving( Eq, Ord )
+
+         data Maybe2 a = Nothing2 | Just2 a
+              deriving( Eq, Ord )
+
+-  The type signature may have quantified type variables that do not
+   appear in the result type: ::
+
+         data Foo where
+            MkFoo :: a -> (a->Bool) -> Foo
+            Nil   :: Foo
+
+   Here the type variable ``a`` does not appear in the result type of
+   either constructor. Although it is universally quantified in the type
+   of the constructor, such a type variable is often called
+   "existential". Indeed, the above declaration declares precisely the
+   same type as the ``data Foo`` in :ref:`existential-quantification`.
+
+   The type may contain a class context too, of course: ::
+
+         data Showable where
+           MkShowable :: Show a => a -> Showable
+
+-  You can use record syntax on a GADT-style data type declaration: ::
+
+         data Person where
+             Adult :: { name :: String, children :: [Person] } -> Person
+             Child :: Show a => { name :: !String, funny :: a } -> Person
+
+   As usual, for every constructor that has a field ``f``, the type of
+   field ``f`` must be the same (modulo alpha conversion). The ``Child``
+   constructor above shows that the signature may have a context,
+   existentially-quantified variables, and strictness annotations, just
+   as in the non-record case. (NB: the "type" that follows the
+   double-colon is not really a type, because of the record syntax and
+   strictness annotations. A "type" of this form can appear only in a
+   constructor signature.)
+
+-  Record updates are allowed with GADT-style declarations, only fields
+   that have the following property: the type of the field mentions no
+   existential type variables.
+
+-  As in the case of existentials declared using the Haskell-98-like
+   record syntax (:ref:`existential-records`), record-selector functions
+   are generated only for those fields that have well-typed selectors.
+   Here is the example of that section, in GADT-style syntax: ::
+
+       data Counter a where
+           NewCounter :: { _this    :: self
+                         , _inc     :: self -> self
+                         , _display :: self -> IO ()
+                         , tag      :: a
+                         } -> Counter a
+
+   As before, only one selector function is generated here, that for
+   ``tag``. Nevertheless, you can still use all the field names in
+   pattern matching and record construction.
+
+-  In a GADT-style data type declaration there is no obvious way to
+   specify that a data constructor should be infix, which makes a
+   difference if you derive ``Show`` for the type. (Data constructors
+   declared infix are displayed infix by the derived ``show``.) So GHC
+   implements the following design: a data constructor declared in a
+   GADT-style data type declaration is displayed infix by ``Show`` iff
+   (a) it is an operator symbol, (b) it has two arguments, (c) it has a
+   programmer-supplied fixity declaration. For example
+
+   ::
+
+          infix 6 (:--:)
+          data T a where
+            (:--:) :: Int -> Bool -> T Int
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/generalised_list_comprehensions.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/generalised_list_comprehensions.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4676ca0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/generalised_list_comprehensions.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,145 @@
+.. _generalised-list-comprehensions:
+
+Generalised (SQL-like) List Comprehensions
+------------------------------------------
+
+.. index::
+   single: list comprehensions; generalised
+   single: extended list comprehensions
+   single: group
+   single: SQL
+
+.. extension:: TransformListComp
+    :shortdesc: Enable generalised list comprehensions.
+
+    :since: 6.10.1
+
+    Allow use of generalised list (SQL-like) comprehension syntax. This
+    introduces the ``group``, ``by``, and ``using`` keywords.
+
+Generalised list comprehensions are a further enhancement to the list
+comprehension syntactic sugar to allow operations such as sorting and
+grouping which are familiar from SQL. They are fully described in the
+paper `Comprehensive comprehensions: comprehensions with "order by" and
+"group by" <https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/wp-content/uploads/2007/09/list-comp.pdf>`__,
+except that the syntax we use differs slightly from the paper.
+
+The extension is enabled with the extension :extension:`TransformListComp`.
+
+Here is an example:
+
+::
+
+    employees = [ ("Simon", "MS", 80)
+                , ("Erik", "MS", 100)
+                , ("Phil", "Ed", 40)
+                , ("Gordon", "Ed", 45)
+                , ("Paul", "Yale", 60) ]
+
+    output = [ (the dept, sum salary)
+             | (name, dept, salary) <- employees
+             , then group by dept using groupWith
+             , then sortWith by (sum salary)
+             , then take 5 ]
+
+In this example, the list ``output`` would take on the value:
+
+::
+
+    [("Yale", 60), ("Ed", 85), ("MS", 180)]
+
+There are three new keywords: ``group``, ``by``, and ``using``. (The
+functions ``sortWith`` and ``groupWith`` are not keywords; they are
+ordinary functions that are exported by ``GHC.Exts``.)
+
+There are five new forms of comprehension qualifier, all introduced by
+the (existing) keyword ``then``:
+
+-  ::
+
+       then f
+
+   This statement requires that
+   f
+   have the type
+   forall a. [a] -> [a]
+   . You can see an example of its use in the motivating example, as
+   this form is used to apply
+   take 5
+   .
+-  ::
+
+       then f by e
+
+   This form is similar to the previous one, but allows you to create a
+   function which will be passed as the first argument to f. As a
+   consequence f must have the type
+   ``forall a. (a -> t) -> [a] -> [a]``. As you can see from the type,
+   this function lets f "project out" some information from the elements
+   of the list it is transforming.
+
+   An example is shown in the opening example, where ``sortWith`` is
+   supplied with a function that lets it find out the ``sum salary`` for
+   any item in the list comprehension it transforms.
+
+-  ::
+
+       then group by e using f
+
+   This is the most general of the grouping-type statements. In this
+   form, f is required to have type
+   ``forall a. (a -> t) -> [a] -> [[a]]``. As with the ``then f by e``
+   case above, the first argument is a function supplied to f by the
+   compiler which lets it compute e on every element of the list being
+   transformed. However, unlike the non-grouping case, f additionally
+   partitions the list into a number of sublists: this means that at
+   every point after this statement, binders occurring before it in the
+   comprehension refer to *lists* of possible values, not single values.
+   To help understand this, let's look at an example:
+
+   ::
+
+       -- This works similarly to groupWith in GHC.Exts, but doesn't sort its input first
+       groupRuns :: Eq b => (a -> b) -> [a] -> [[a]]
+       groupRuns f = groupBy (\x y -> f x == f y)
+
+       output = [ (the x, y)
+       | x <- ([1..3] ++ [1..2])
+       , y <- [4..6]
+       , then group by x using groupRuns ]
+
+   This results in the variable ``output`` taking on the value below:
+
+   ::
+
+       [(1, [4, 5, 6]), (2, [4, 5, 6]), (3, [4, 5, 6]), (1, [4, 5, 6]), (2, [4, 5, 6])]
+
+   Note that we have used the ``the`` function to change the type of x
+   from a list to its original numeric type. The variable y, in
+   contrast, is left unchanged from the list form introduced by the
+   grouping.
+
+-  ::
+
+       then group using f
+
+   With this form of the group statement, f is required to simply have
+   the type ``forall a. [a] -> [[a]]``, which will be used to group up
+   the comprehension so far directly. An example of this form is as
+   follows:
+
+   ::
+
+       output = [ x
+       | y <- [1..5]
+       , x <- "hello"
+       , then group using inits]
+
+   This will yield a list containing every prefix of the word "hello"
+   written out 5 times:
+
+   ::
+
+       ["","h","he","hel","hell","hello","helloh","hellohe","hellohel","hellohell","hellohello","hellohelloh",...]
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/generics.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/generics.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4299e2c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/generics.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,251 @@
+.. _generic-programming:
+
+Generic programming
+===================
+
+Using a combination of :extension:`DeriveGeneric`,
+:extension:`DefaultSignatures`, and :extension:`DeriveAnyClass`, you can
+easily do datatype-generic programming using the :base-ref:`GHC.Generics.`
+framework. This section gives a very brief overview of how to do it.
+
+Generic programming support in GHC allows defining classes with methods
+that do not need a user specification when instantiating: the method
+body is automatically derived by GHC. This is similar to what happens
+for standard classes such as ``Read`` and ``Show``, for instance, but
+now for user-defined classes.
+
+.. _generic-classes:
+
+.. note::
+
+   GHC used to have an implementation of generic classes as defined in the paper
+   "Derivable type classes", Ralf Hinze and Simon Peyton Jones, Haskell
+   Workshop, Montreal Sept 2000, pp. 94-105. These have been removed and
+   replaced by the more general support for generic programming.
+
+Deriving representations
+------------------------
+
+The first thing we need is generic representations. The ``GHC.Generics``
+module defines a couple of primitive types that are used to represent
+Haskell datatypes: ::
+
+    -- | Unit: used for constructors without arguments
+    data U1 p = U1
+
+    -- | Constants, additional parameters and recursion of kind Type
+    newtype K1 i c p = K1 { unK1 :: c }
+
+    -- | Meta-information (constructor names, etc.)
+    newtype M1 i c f p = M1 { unM1 :: f p }
+
+    -- | Sums: encode choice between constructors
+    infixr 5 :+:
+    data (:+:) f g p = L1 (f p) | R1 (g p)
+
+    -- | Products: encode multiple arguments to constructors
+    infixr 6 :*:
+    data (:*:) f g p = f p :*: g p
+
+The ``Generic`` and ``Generic1`` classes mediate between user-defined
+datatypes and their internal representation as a sum-of-products: ::
+
+    class Generic a where
+      -- Encode the representation of a user datatype
+      type Rep a :: Type -> Type
+      -- Convert from the datatype to its representation
+      from  :: a -> (Rep a) x
+      -- Convert from the representation to the datatype
+      to    :: (Rep a) x -> a
+
+    class Generic1 (f :: k -> Type) where
+      type Rep1 f :: k -> Type
+
+      from1  :: f a -> Rep1 f a
+      to1    :: Rep1 f a -> f a
+
+``Generic1`` is used for functions that can only be defined over type
+containers, such as ``map``. Note that ``Generic1`` ranges over types of kind
+``Type -> Type`` by default, but if the :extension:`PolyKinds` extension is
+enabled, then it can range of types of kind ``k -> Type``, for any kind ``k``.
+
+.. extension:: DeriveGeneric
+    :shortdesc: Enable deriving for the Generic class.
+
+    :since: 7.2.1
+
+    Allow automatic deriving of instances for the ``Generic`` typeclass.
+
+
+Instances of these classes can be derived by GHC with the
+:extension:`DeriveGeneric` extension, and are necessary to be able to define
+generic instances automatically.
+
+For example, a user-defined datatype of trees ::
+
+    data UserTree a = Node a (UserTree a) (UserTree a) | Leaf
+
+in a ``Main`` module in a package named ``foo`` will get the following
+representation: ::
+
+    instance Generic (UserTree a) where
+      -- Representation type
+      type Rep (UserTree a) =
+        M1 D ('MetaData "UserTree" "Main" "package-name" 'False) (
+              M1 C ('MetaCons "Node" 'PrefixI 'False) (
+                    M1 S ('MetaSel 'Nothing
+                                   'NoSourceUnpackedness
+                                   'NoSourceStrictness
+                                   'DecidedLazy)
+                         (K1 R a)
+                :*: M1 S ('MetaSel 'Nothing
+                                   'NoSourceUnpackedness
+                                   'NoSourceStrictness
+                                   'DecidedLazy)
+                         (K1 R (UserTree a))
+                :*: M1 S ('MetaSel 'Nothing
+                                   'NoSourceUnpackedness
+                                   'NoSourceStrictness
+                                   'DecidedLazy)
+                         (K1 R (UserTree a)))
+          :+: M1 C ('MetaCons "Leaf" 'PrefixI 'False) U1)
+
+      -- Conversion functions
+      from (Node x l r) = M1 (L1 (M1 (M1 (K1 x) :*: M1 (K1 l) :*: M1 (K1 r))))
+      from Leaf         = M1 (R1 (M1 U1))
+      to (M1 (L1 (M1 (M1 (K1 x) :*: M1 (K1 l) :*: M1 (K1 r))))) = Node x l r
+      to (M1 (R1 (M1 U1)))                                      = Leaf
+
+This representation is generated automatically if a ``deriving Generic``
+clause is attached to the datatype. `Standalone
+deriving <#stand-alone-deriving>`__ can also be used.
+
+Writing generic functions
+-------------------------
+
+A generic function is defined by creating a class and giving instances
+for each of the representation types of ``GHC.Generics``. As an example
+we show generic serialization: ::
+
+    data Bin = O | I
+
+    class GSerialize f where
+      gput :: f a -> [Bin]
+
+    instance GSerialize U1 where
+      gput U1 = []
+
+    instance (GSerialize a, GSerialize b) => GSerialize (a :*: b) where
+      gput (x :*: y) = gput x ++ gput y
+
+    instance (GSerialize a, GSerialize b) => GSerialize (a :+: b) where
+      gput (L1 x) = O : gput x
+      gput (R1 x) = I : gput x
+
+    instance (GSerialize a) => GSerialize (M1 i c a) where
+      gput (M1 x) = gput x
+
+    instance (Serialize a) => GSerialize (K1 i a) where
+      gput (K1 x) = put x
+
+A caveat: this encoding strategy may not be reliable across different versions
+of GHC. When deriving a ``Generic`` instance is free to choose any nesting of
+``:+:`` and ``:*:`` it chooses, so if GHC chooses ``(a :+: b) :+: c``, then the
+encoding for ``a`` would be ``[O, O]``, ``b`` would be ``[O, I]``, and ``c``
+would be ``[I]``. However, if GHC chooses ``a :+: (b :+: c)``, then the
+encoding for ``a`` would be ``[O]``, ``b`` would be ``[I, O]``, and ``c`` would
+be ``[I, I]``. (In practice, the current implementation tries to produce a
+more-or-less balanced nesting of ``:+:`` and ``:*:`` so that the traversal of
+the structure of the datatype from the root to a particular component can be
+performed in logarithmic rather than linear time.)
+
+Typically this ``GSerialize`` class will not be exported, as it only makes
+sense to have instances for the representation types.
+
+Unlifted representation types
+-----------------------------
+
+The data family ``URec`` is provided to enable generic programming over
+datatypes with certain unlifted arguments. There are six instances corresponding
+to common unlifted types: ::
+
+    data family URec a p
+
+    data instance URec (Ptr ()) p = UAddr   { uAddr#   :: Addr#   }
+    data instance URec Char     p = UChar   { uChar#   :: Char#   }
+    data instance URec Double   p = UDouble { uDouble# :: Double# }
+    data instance URec Int      p = UInt    { uInt#    :: Int#    }
+    data instance URec Float    p = UFloat  { uFloat#  :: Float#  }
+    data instance URec Word     p = UWord   { uWord#   :: Word#   }
+
+Six type synonyms are provided for convenience: ::
+
+    type UAddr   = URec (Ptr ())
+    type UChar   = URec Char
+    type UDouble = URec Double
+    type UFloat  = URec Float
+    type UInt    = URec Int
+    type UWord   = URec Word
+
+As an example, this data declaration: ::
+
+    data IntHash = IntHash Int#
+      deriving Generic
+
+results in the following ``Generic`` instance: ::
+
+    instance 'Generic' IntHash where
+      type 'Rep' IntHash =
+        'D1' ('MetaData "IntHash" "Main" "package-name" 'False)
+          ('C1' ('MetaCons "IntHash" 'PrefixI 'False)
+            ('S1' ('MetaSel 'Nothing
+                            'NoSourceUnpackedness
+                            'NoSourceStrictness
+                            'DecidedLazy)
+                  'UInt'))
+
+A user could provide, for example, a ``GSerialize UInt`` instance so that a
+``Serialize IntHash`` instance could be easily defined in terms of
+``GSerialize``.
+
+Generic defaults
+----------------
+
+The only thing left to do now is to define a "front-end" class, which is
+exposed to the user: ::
+
+    class Serialize a where
+      put :: a -> [Bin]
+
+      default put :: (Generic a, GSerialize (Rep a)) => a -> [Bin]
+      put = gput . from
+
+Here we use a `default signature <#class-default-signatures>`__ to
+specify that the user does not have to provide an implementation for
+``put``, as long as there is a ``Generic`` instance for the type to
+instantiate. For the ``UserTree`` type, for instance, the user can just
+write: ::
+
+    instance (Serialize a) => Serialize (UserTree a)
+
+The default method for ``put`` is then used, corresponding to the
+generic implementation of serialization. If you are using
+:extension:`DeriveAnyClass`, the same instance is generated by simply attaching
+a ``deriving Serialize`` clause to the ``UserTree`` datatype
+declaration. For more examples of generic functions please refer to the
+`generic-deriving <http://hackage.haskell.org/package/generic-deriving>`__
+package on Hackage.
+
+More information
+----------------
+
+For more details please refer to the `Haskell Wiki
+page <http://www.haskell.org/haskellwiki/GHC.Generics>`__ or the
+original paper [Generics2010]_.
+
+.. [Generics2010] Jose Pedro Magalhaes, Atze Dijkstra, Johan Jeuring, and Andres Loeh.
+   `A generic deriving mechanism for Haskell
+   <http://dreixel.net/research/pdf/gdmh.pdf>`__. Proceedings of
+   the third ACM Haskell symposium on Haskell (Haskell'2010), pp. 37-48,
+   ACM, 2010.
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/hasfield.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/hasfield.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d83d3f1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/hasfield.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,177 @@
+.. _record-field-selector-polymorphism:
+
+Record field selector polymorphism
+----------------------------------
+
+The module :base-ref:`GHC.Records.` defines the following: ::
+
+  class HasField (x :: k) r a | x r -> a where
+    getField :: r -> a
+
+A ``HasField x r a`` constraint represents the fact that ``x`` is a
+field of type ``a`` belonging to a record type ``r``.  The
+``getField`` method gives the record selector function.
+
+This allows definitions that are polymorphic over record types with a specified
+field.  For example, the following works with any record type that has a field
+``name :: String``: ::
+
+  foo :: HasField "name" r String => r -> String
+  foo r = reverse (getField @"name" r)
+
+``HasField`` is a magic built-in typeclass (similar to ``Coercible``, for
+example).  It is given special treatment by the constraint solver (see
+:ref:`solving-hasfield-constraints`).  Users may define their own instances of
+``HasField`` also (see :ref:`virtual-record-fields`).
+
+.. _solving-hasfield-constraints:
+
+Solving HasField constraints
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+If the constraint solver encounters a constraint ``HasField x r a``
+where ``r`` is a concrete datatype with a field ``x`` in scope, it
+will automatically solve the constraint using the field selector as
+the dictionary, unifying ``a`` with the type of the field if
+necessary.  This happens irrespective of which extensions are enabled.
+
+For example, if the following datatype is in scope ::
+
+  data Person = Person { name :: String }
+
+the end result is rather like having an instance ::
+
+  instance HasField "name" Person String where
+    getField = name
+
+except that this instance is not actually generated anywhere, rather
+the constraint is solved directly by the constraint solver.
+
+A field must be in scope for the corresponding ``HasField`` constraint
+to be solved.  This retains the existing representation hiding
+mechanism, whereby a module may choose not to export a field,
+preventing client modules from accessing or updating it directly.
+
+Solving ``HasField`` constraints depends on the field selector functions that
+are generated for each datatype definition:
+
+-  If a record field does not have a selector function because its type would allow
+   an existential variable to escape, the corresponding ``HasField`` constraint
+   will not be solved.  For example, ::
+
+     {-# LANGUAGE ExistentialQuantification #-}
+     data Exists t = forall x . MkExists { unExists :: t x }
+
+   does not give rise to a selector ``unExists :: Exists t -> t x`` and we will not
+   solve ``HasField "unExists" (Exists t) a`` automatically.
+
+-  If a record field has a polymorphic type (and hence the selector function is
+   higher-rank), the corresponding ``HasField`` constraint will not be solved,
+   because doing so would violate the functional dependency on ``HasField`` and/or
+   require impredicativity.  For example, ::
+
+     {-# LANGUAGE RankNTypes #-}
+     data Higher = MkHigher { unHigher :: forall t . t -> t }
+
+   gives rise to a selector ``unHigher :: Higher -> (forall t . t -> t)`` but does
+   not lead to solution of the constraint ``HasField "unHigher" Higher a``.
+
+-  A record GADT may have a restricted type for a selector function, which may lead
+   to additional unification when solving ``HasField`` constraints.  For example, ::
+
+     {-# LANGUAGE GADTs #-}
+     data Gadt t where
+       MkGadt :: { unGadt :: Maybe v } -> Gadt [v]
+
+   gives rise to a selector ``unGadt :: Gadt [v] -> Maybe v``, so the solver will reduce
+   the constraint ``HasField "unGadt" (Gadt t) b`` by unifying ``t ~ [v]`` and
+   ``b ~ Maybe v`` for some fresh metavariable ``v``, rather as if we had an instance ::
+
+     instance (t ~ [v], b ~ Maybe v) => HasField "unGadt" (Gadt t) b
+
+-  If a record type has an old-fashioned datatype context, the ``HasField``
+   constraint will be reduced to solving the constraints from the context.
+   For example, ::
+
+     {-# LANGUAGE DatatypeContexts #-}
+     data Eq a => Silly a = MkSilly { unSilly :: a }
+
+   gives rise to a selector ``unSilly :: Eq a => Silly a -> a``, so
+   the solver will reduce the constraint ``HasField "unSilly" (Silly a) b`` to
+   ``Eq a`` (and unify ``a`` with ``b``), rather as if we had an instance ::
+
+     instance (Eq a, a ~ b) => HasField "unSilly" (Silly a) b
+
+.. _virtual-record-fields:
+
+Virtual record fields
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Users may define their own instances of ``HasField``, provided they do
+not conflict with the built-in constraint solving behaviour.  This
+allows "virtual" record fields to be defined for datatypes that do not
+otherwise have them.
+
+For example, this instance would make the ``name`` field of ``Person``
+accessible using ``#fullname`` as well: ::
+
+  instance HasField "fullname" Person String where
+    getField = name
+
+More substantially, an anonymous records library could provide
+``HasField`` instances for its anonymous records, and thus be
+compatible with the polymorphic record selectors introduced by this
+proposal.  For example, something like this makes it possible to use
+``getField`` to access ``Record`` values with the appropriate
+string in the type-level list of fields: ::
+
+  data Record (xs :: [(k, Type)]) where
+    Nil  :: Record '[]
+    Cons :: Proxy x -> a -> Record xs -> Record ('(x, a) ': xs)
+
+  instance HasField x (Record ('(x, a) ': xs)) a where
+    getField (Cons _ v _) = v
+  instance HasField x (Record xs) a => HasField x (Record ('(y, b) ': xs)) a where
+    getField (Cons _ _ r) = getField @x r
+
+  r :: Record '[ '("name", String) ]
+  r = Cons Proxy "R" Nil)
+
+  x = getField @"name" r
+
+Since representations such as this can support field labels with kinds other
+than ``Symbol``, the ``HasField`` class is poly-kinded (even though the built-in
+constraint solving works only at kind ``Symbol``).  In particular, this allows
+users to declare scoped field labels such as in the following example: ::
+
+  data PersonFields = Name
+
+  s :: Record '[ '(Name, String) ]
+  s = Cons Proxy "S" Nil
+
+  y = getField @Name s
+
+In order to avoid conflicting with the built-in constraint solving,
+the following user-defined ``HasField`` instances are prohibited (in
+addition to the usual rules, such as the prohibition on type
+families appearing in instance heads):
+
+-  ``HasField _ r _`` where ``r`` is a variable;
+
+-  ``HasField _ (T ...) _`` if ``T`` is a data family (because it
+   might have fields introduced later, using data instance declarations);
+
+-  ``HasField x (T ...) _`` if ``x`` is a variable and ``T`` has any
+   fields at all (but this instance is permitted if ``T`` has no fields);
+
+-  ``HasField "foo" (T ...) _`` if ``T`` has a field ``foo`` (but this
+   instance is permitted if it does not).
+
+If a field has a higher-rank or existential type, the corresponding ``HasField``
+constraint will not be solved automatically (as described above), but in the
+interests of simplicity we do not permit users to define their own instances
+either.  If a field is not in scope, the corresponding instance is still
+prohibited, to avoid conflicts in downstream modules.
+
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/hex_float_literals.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/hex_float_literals.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7626964
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/hex_float_literals.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+.. _hex-float-literals:
+
+Hexadecimal floating point literals
+-----------------------------------
+
+.. extension:: HexFloatLiterals
+    :shortdesc: Enable support for :ref:`hexadecimal floating point literals <hex-float-literals>`.
+
+    :since: 8.4.1
+
+    Allow writing floating point literals using hexadecimal notation.
+
+The hexadecimal notation for floating point literals is useful when you
+need to specify floating point constants precisely, as the literal notation
+corresponds closely to the underlying bit-encoding of the number.
+
+In this notation floating point numbers are written using hexadecimal digits,
+and so the digits are interpreted using base 16, rather then the usual 10.
+This means that digits left of the decimal point correspond to positive
+powers of 16, while the ones to the right correspond to negative ones.
+
+You may also write an explicit exponent, which is similar to the exponent
+in decimal notation with the following differences:
+- the exponent begins with ``p`` instead of ``e``
+- the exponent is written in base ``10`` (**not** 16)
+- the base of the exponent is ``2`` (**not** 16).
+
+In terms of the underlying bit encoding, each hexadecimal digit corresponds
+to 4 bits, and you may think of the exponent as "moving" the floating point
+by one bit left (negative) or right (positive).  Here are some examples:
+
+-  ``0x0.1``     is the same as ``1/16``
+-  ``0x0.01``    is the same as ``1/256``
+-  ``0xF.FF``    is the same as ``15 + 15/16 + 15/256``
+-  ``0x0.1p4``   is the same as ``1``
+-  ``0x0.1p-4``  is the same as ``1/256``
+-  ``0x0.1p12``  is the same as ``256``
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/hiding_unexported.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/hiding_unexported.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8e295ca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/hiding_unexported.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+Hiding things the imported module doesn't export
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Technically in Haskell 2010 this is illegal: ::
+
+    module A( f ) where
+      f = True
+
+    module B where
+      import A hiding( g )  -- A does not export g
+      g = f
+
+The ``import A hiding( g )`` in module ``B`` is technically an error
+(`Haskell Report,
+5.3.1 <http://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/haskell2010/haskellch5.html#x11-1020005.3.1>`__)
+because ``A`` does not export ``g``. However GHC allows it, in the
+interests of supporting backward compatibility; for example, a newer
+version of ``A`` might export ``g``, and you want ``B`` to work in
+either case.
+
+The warning :ghc-flag:`-Wdodgy-imports`, which is off by default but included
+with :ghc-flag:`-W`, warns if you hide something that the imported module does
+not export.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/implicit_parameters.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/implicit_parameters.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a8da87e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/implicit_parameters.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,203 @@
+.. _implicit-parameters:
+
+Implicit parameters
+===================
+
+.. extension:: ImplicitParams
+    :shortdesc: Enable Implicit Parameters.
+
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Allow definition of functions expecting implicit parameters.
+
+Implicit parameters are implemented as described in [Lewis2000]_ and enabled
+with the option :extension:`ImplicitParams`. (Most of the following, still rather
+incomplete, documentation is due to Jeff Lewis.)
+
+.. [Lewis2000]
+    "Implicit parameters: dynamic scoping with static types",
+    J Lewis, MB Shields, E Meijer, J Launchbury,
+    *27th ACM Symposium on Principles of Programming Languages (POPL'00)*,
+    Boston, Jan 2000.
+
+A variable is called *dynamically bound* when it is bound by the calling
+context of a function and *statically bound* when bound by the callee's
+context. In Haskell, all variables are statically bound. Dynamic binding
+of variables is a notion that goes back to Lisp, but was later discarded
+in more modern incarnations, such as Scheme. Dynamic binding can be very
+confusing in an untyped language, and unfortunately, typed languages, in
+particular Hindley-Milner typed languages like Haskell, only support
+static scoping of variables.
+
+However, by a simple extension to the type class system of Haskell, we
+can support dynamic binding. Basically, we express the use of a
+dynamically bound variable as a constraint on the type. These
+constraints lead to types of the form ``(?x::t') => t``, which says
+"this function uses a dynamically-bound variable ``?x`` of type ``t'``".
+For example, the following expresses the type of a sort function,
+implicitly parameterised by a comparison function named ``cmp``. ::
+
+      sort :: (?cmp :: a -> a -> Bool) => [a] -> [a]
+
+The dynamic binding constraints are just a new form of predicate in the
+type class system.
+
+An implicit parameter occurs in an expression using the special form
+``?x``, where ``x`` is any valid identifier (e.g. ``ord ?x`` is a valid
+expression). Use of this construct also introduces a new dynamic-binding
+constraint in the type of the expression. For example, the following
+definition shows how we can define an implicitly parameterised sort
+function in terms of an explicitly parameterised ``sortBy`` function: ::
+
+      sortBy :: (a -> a -> Bool) -> [a] -> [a]
+
+      sort   :: (?cmp :: a -> a -> Bool) => [a] -> [a]
+      sort    = sortBy ?cmp
+
+Implicit-parameter type constraints
+-----------------------------------
+
+Dynamic binding constraints behave just like other type class
+constraints in that they are automatically propagated. Thus, when a
+function is used, its implicit parameters are inherited by the function
+that called it. For example, our ``sort`` function might be used to pick
+out the least value in a list: ::
+
+      least   :: (?cmp :: a -> a -> Bool) => [a] -> a
+      least xs = head (sort xs)
+
+Without lifting a finger, the ``?cmp`` parameter is propagated to become
+a parameter of ``least`` as well. With explicit parameters, the default
+is that parameters must always be explicit propagated. With implicit
+parameters, the default is to always propagate them.
+
+An implicit-parameter type constraint differs from other type class
+constraints in the following way: All uses of a particular implicit
+parameter must have the same type. This means that the type of
+``(?x, ?x)`` is ``(?x::a) => (a,a)``, and not
+``(?x::a, ?x::b) => (a, b)``, as would be the case for type class
+constraints.
+
+You can't have an implicit parameter in the context of a class or
+instance declaration. For example, both these declarations are illegal: ::
+
+      class (?x::Int) => C a where ...
+      instance (?x::a) => Foo [a] where ...
+
+Reason: exactly which implicit parameter you pick up depends on exactly
+where you invoke a function. But the "invocation" of instance
+declarations is done behind the scenes by the compiler, so it's hard to
+figure out exactly where it is done. Easiest thing is to outlaw the
+offending types.
+
+Implicit-parameter constraints do not cause ambiguity. For example,
+consider: ::
+
+       f :: (?x :: [a]) => Int -> Int
+       f n = n + length ?x
+
+       g :: (Read a, Show a) => String -> String
+       g s = show (read s)
+
+Here, ``g`` has an ambiguous type, and is rejected, but ``f`` is fine.
+The binding for ``?x`` at ``f``\ 's call site is quite unambiguous, and
+fixes the type ``a``.
+
+Implicit-parameter bindings
+---------------------------
+
+An implicit parameter is *bound* using the standard ``let`` or ``where``
+binding forms. For example, we define the ``min`` function by binding
+``cmp``. ::
+
+      min :: Ord a => [a] -> a
+      min  = let ?cmp = (<=) in least
+
+A group of implicit-parameter bindings may occur anywhere a normal group
+of Haskell bindings can occur, except at top level. That is, they can
+occur in a ``let`` (including in a list comprehension, or do-notation,
+or pattern guards), or a ``where`` clause. Note the following points:
+
+-  An implicit-parameter binding group must be a collection of simple
+   bindings to implicit-style variables (no function-style bindings, and
+   no type signatures); these bindings are neither polymorphic or
+   recursive.
+
+-  You may not mix implicit-parameter bindings with ordinary bindings in
+   a single ``let`` expression; use two nested ``let``\ s instead. (In
+   the case of ``where`` you are stuck, since you can't nest ``where``
+   clauses.)
+
+-  You may put multiple implicit-parameter bindings in a single binding
+   group; but they are *not* treated as a mutually recursive group (as
+   ordinary ``let`` bindings are). Instead they are treated as a
+   non-recursive group, simultaneously binding all the implicit
+   parameter. The bindings are not nested, and may be re-ordered without
+   changing the meaning of the program. For example, consider: ::
+
+         f t = let { ?x = t; ?y = ?x+(1::Int) } in ?x + ?y
+
+   The use of ``?x`` in the binding for ``?y`` does not "see" the
+   binding for ``?x``, so the type of ``f`` is ::
+
+         f :: (?x::Int) => Int -> Int
+
+Implicit parameters and polymorphic recursion
+---------------------------------------------
+
+Consider these two definitions: ::
+
+      len1 :: [a] -> Int
+      len1 xs = let ?acc = 0 in len_acc1 xs
+
+      len_acc1 [] = ?acc
+      len_acc1 (x:xs) = let ?acc = ?acc + (1::Int) in len_acc1 xs
+
+      ------------
+
+      len2 :: [a] -> Int
+      len2 xs = let ?acc = 0 in len_acc2 xs
+
+      len_acc2 :: (?acc :: Int) => [a] -> Int
+      len_acc2 [] = ?acc
+      len_acc2 (x:xs) = let ?acc = ?acc + (1::Int) in len_acc2 xs
+
+The only difference between the two groups is that in the second group
+``len_acc`` is given a type signature. In the former case, ``len_acc1``
+is monomorphic in its own right-hand side, so the implicit parameter
+``?acc`` is not passed to the recursive call. In the latter case,
+because ``len_acc2`` has a type signature, the recursive call is made to
+the *polymorphic* version, which takes ``?acc`` as an implicit
+parameter. So we get the following results in GHCi:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+      Prog> len1 "hello"
+      0
+      Prog> len2 "hello"
+      5
+
+Adding a type signature dramatically changes the result! This is a
+rather counter-intuitive phenomenon, worth watching out for.
+
+Implicit parameters and monomorphism
+------------------------------------
+
+GHC applies the dreaded Monomorphism Restriction (section 4.5.5 of the
+Haskell Report) to implicit parameters. For example, consider: ::
+
+     f :: Int -> Int
+     f v = let ?x = 0     in
+           let y = ?x + v in
+           let ?x = 5     in
+           y
+
+Since the binding for ``y`` falls under the Monomorphism Restriction it
+is not generalised, so the type of ``y`` is simply ``Int``, not
+``(?x::Int) => Int``. Hence, ``(f 9)`` returns result ``9``. If you add
+a type signature for ``y``, then ``y`` will get type
+``(?x::Int) => Int``, so the occurrence of ``y`` in the body of the
+``let`` will see the inner binding of ``?x``, so ``(f 9)`` will return
+``14``.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/import_export.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/import_export.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5362a69
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/import_export.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+.. _package-imports:
+
+Import and export
+=================
+
+.. toctree::
+    :maxdepth: 1
+
+    hiding_unexported
+    package_qualified_imports
+    safe_imports
+    explicit_namespaces
+    import_qualified_post
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/import_qualified_post.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/import_qualified_post.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a9b0b6a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/import_qualified_post.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+.. _importqualifiedpost:
+
+Writing qualified in postpositive position
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. extension:: ImportQualifiedPost
+    :shortdesc: ``ImportQualifiedPost`` allows the syntax ``import M qualified``
+
+    :since: 8.10.1
+
+    ``ImportQualifiedPost`` allows the syntax ``import M qualified``, that is, to annotate a module as qualified by writing ``qualified`` after the module name.
+
+To import a qualified module usually you must specify ``qualified`` in prepositive position : ``import qualified M``. This often leads to a "hanging indent" (which is automatically inserted by some autoformatters and common in many code bases. For example:
+
+.. code-block::  none
+
+ import qualified A
+ import           B
+ import           C
+
+The ``ImportQualifiedPost`` extension allows ``qualified`` to appear in postpositive position : ``import M qualified``. With this extension enabled, one can write:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+   import A qualified
+   import B
+   import C
+
+It is an error if ``qualified`` appears in both pre and postpositive positions.
+
+The warning ``-Wprepositive-qualified-syntax`` (off by default) reports on any occurrences of imports annotated ``qualified`` using prepositive syntax.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/impredicative_types.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/impredicative_types.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2380526
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/impredicative_types.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+.. _impredicative-polymorphism:
+
+Impredicative polymorphism
+==========================
+
+.. extension:: ImpredicativeTypes
+    :shortdesc: Enable impredicative types.
+        Implies :extension:`RankNTypes`.
+
+    :implies: :extension:`RankNTypes`
+    :since: 6.10.1
+
+    Allow impredicative polymorphic types.
+
+In general, GHC will only instantiate a polymorphic function at a
+monomorphic type (one with no foralls). For example, ::
+
+    runST :: (forall s. ST s a) -> a
+    id :: forall b. b -> b
+
+    foo = id runST   -- Rejected
+
+The definition of ``foo`` is rejected because one would have to
+instantiate ``id``\'s type with ``b := (forall s. ST s a) -> a``, and
+that is not allowed. Instantiating polymorphic type variables with
+polymorphic types is called *impredicative polymorphism*.
+
+GHC has extremely flaky support for *impredicative polymorphism*,
+enabled with :extension:`ImpredicativeTypes`. If it worked, this would mean
+that you *could* call a polymorphic function at a polymorphic type, and
+parameterise data structures over polymorphic types. For example: ::
+
+      f :: Maybe (forall a. [a] -> [a]) -> Maybe ([Int], [Char])
+      f (Just g) = Just (g [3], g "hello")
+      f Nothing  = Nothing
+
+Notice here that the ``Maybe`` type is parameterised by the
+*polymorphic* type ``(forall a. [a] -> [a])``. However *the extension
+should be considered highly experimental, and certainly un-supported*.
+You are welcome to try it, but please don't rely on it working
+consistently, or working the same in subsequent releases. See
+:ghc-wiki:`this wiki page <impredicative-polymorphism>` for more details.
+
+If you want impredicative polymorphism, the main workaround is to use a
+newtype wrapper. The ``id runST`` example can be written using this
+workaround like this: ::
+
+    runST :: (forall s. ST s a) -> a
+    id :: forall b. b -> b
+
+    newtype Wrap a = Wrap { unWrap :: (forall s. ST s a) -> a }
+
+    foo :: (forall s. ST s a) -> a
+    foo = unWrap (id (Wrap runST))
+          -- Here id is called at monomorphic type (Wrap a)
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/infix_tycons.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/infix_tycons.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..95750ca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/infix_tycons.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+.. _infix-tycons:
+
+Infix type constructors, classes, and type variables
+----------------------------------------------------
+
+GHC allows type constructors, classes, and type variables to be
+operators, and to be written infix, very much like expressions. More
+specifically:
+
+-  A type constructor or class can be any non-reserved operator.
+   Symbols used in types are always like capitalized identifiers; they
+   are never variables. Note that this is different from the lexical
+   syntax of data constructors, which are required to begin with a
+   ``:``.
+
+-  Data type and type-synonym declarations can be written infix,
+   parenthesised if you want further arguments. E.g. ::
+
+         data a :*: b = Foo a b
+         type a :+: b = Either a b
+         class a :=: b where ...
+
+         data (a :**: b) x = Baz a b x
+         type (a :++: b) y = Either (a,b) y
+
+-  Types, and class constraints, can be written infix. For example ::
+
+         x :: Int :*: Bool
+         f :: (a :=: b) => a -> b
+
+-  Back-quotes work as for expressions, both for type constructors and
+   type variables; e.g. ``Int `Either` Bool``, or ``Int `a` Bool``.
+   Similarly, parentheses work the same; e.g. ``(:*:) Int Bool``.
+
+-  Fixities may be declared for type constructors, or classes, just as
+   for data constructors. However, one cannot distinguish between the
+   two in a fixity declaration; a fixity declaration sets the fixity for
+   a data constructor and the corresponding type constructor. For
+   example: ::
+
+         infixl 7 T, :*:
+
+   sets the fixity for both type constructor ``T`` and data constructor
+   ``T``, and similarly for ``:*:``. ``Int `a` Bool``.
+
+-  The function arrow ``->`` is ``infixr`` with fixity -1.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/instances.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/instances.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1af795c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/instances.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,623 @@
+.. _instance-decls:
+.. _instance-resolution:
+
+Instance declarations and resolution
+------------------------------------
+
+An instance declaration has the form ::
+
+      instance ( assertion1, ..., assertionn) => class type1 ... typem where ...
+
+The part before the "``=>``" is the *context*, while the part after the
+"``=>``" is the *head* of the instance declaration.
+
+When GHC tries to resolve, say, the constraint ``C Int Bool``, it tries
+to match every instance declaration against the constraint, by
+instantiating the head of the instance declaration. Consider these
+declarations: ::
+
+      instance context1 => C Int a     where ...  -- (A)
+      instance context2 => C a   Bool  where ...  -- (B)
+
+GHC's default behaviour is that *exactly one instance must match the
+constraint it is trying to resolve*. For example, the constraint
+``C Int Bool`` matches instances (A) and (B), and hence would be
+rejected; while ``C Int Char`` matches only (A) and hence (A) is chosen.
+
+Notice that
+
+-  When matching, GHC takes no account of the context of the instance
+   declaration (``context1`` etc).
+
+-  It is fine for there to be a *potential* of overlap (by including
+   both declarations (A) and (B), say); an error is only reported if a
+   particular constraint matches more than one.
+
+See also :ref:`instance-overlap` for flags that loosen the instance
+resolution rules.
+
+.. _flexible-instance-head:
+
+Relaxed rules for the instance head
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. extension:: TypeSynonymInstances
+    :shortdesc: Enable type synonyms in instance heads.
+      Implied by :extension:`FlexibleInstances`.
+
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Allow definition of type class instances for type synonyms.
+
+.. extension:: FlexibleInstances
+    :shortdesc: Enable flexible instances.
+        Implies :extension:`TypeSynonymInstances`.
+
+    :implies: :extension:`TypeSynonymInstances`
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Allow definition of type class instances with arbitrary nested types in the
+    instance head.
+
+In Haskell 98 the head of an instance declaration must be of the form
+``C (T a1 ... an)``, where ``C`` is the class, ``T`` is a data type
+constructor, and the ``a1 ... an`` are distinct type variables. In the
+case of multi-parameter type classes, this rule applies to each
+parameter of the instance head (Arguably it should be okay if just one
+has this form and the others are type variables, but that's the rules at
+the moment).
+
+GHC relaxes this rule in two ways:
+
+-  With the :extension:`TypeSynonymInstances` extension, instance heads may use type
+   synonyms. As always, using a type synonym is just shorthand for
+   writing the RHS of the type synonym definition. For example: ::
+
+         type Point a = (a,a)
+         instance C (Point a)   where ...
+
+   is legal. The instance declaration is equivalent to ::
+
+         instance C (a,a) where ...
+
+   As always, type synonyms must be fully applied. You cannot, for
+   example, write: ::
+
+         instance Monad Point where ...
+
+-  The :extension:`FlexibleInstances` extension allows the head of the instance
+   declaration to mention arbitrary nested types. For example, this
+   becomes a legal instance declaration ::
+
+         instance C (Maybe Int) where ...
+
+   See also the `rules on overlap <#instance-overlap>`__.
+
+   The :extension:`FlexibleInstances` extension implies
+   :extension:`TypeSynonymInstances`.
+
+However, the instance declaration must still conform to the rules for
+instance termination: see :ref:`instance-termination`.
+
+.. _instance-rules:
+
+Relaxed rules for instance contexts
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+In Haskell 98, the class constraints in the context of the instance
+declaration must be of the form ``C a`` where ``a`` is a type variable
+that occurs in the head.
+
+The :extension:`FlexibleContexts` extension relaxes this rule, as well as relaxing
+the corresponding rule for type signatures (see
+:ref:`flexible-contexts`). Specifically, :extension:`FlexibleContexts`, allows
+(well-kinded) class constraints of form ``(C t1 ... tn)`` in the context
+of an instance declaration.
+
+Notice that the extension does not affect equality constraints in an instance
+context; they are permitted by :extension:`TypeFamilies` or :extension:`GADTs`.
+
+However, the instance declaration must still conform to the rules for
+instance termination: see :ref:`instance-termination`.
+
+.. _instance-termination:
+
+Instance termination rules
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. extension:: UndecidableInstances
+    :shortdesc: Enable undecidable instances.
+
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Permit definition of instances which may lead to type-checker non-termination.
+
+Regardless of :extension:`FlexibleInstances` and :extension:`FlexibleContexts`,
+instance declarations must conform to some rules that ensure that
+instance resolution will terminate. The restrictions can be lifted with
+:extension:`UndecidableInstances` (see :ref:`undecidable-instances`).
+
+The rules are these:
+
+1. The Paterson Conditions: for each class constraint ``(C t1 ... tn)``
+   in the context
+
+   1. No type variable has more occurrences in the constraint than in
+      the head
+
+   2. The constraint has fewer constructors and variables (taken
+      together and counting repetitions) than the head
+
+   3. The constraint mentions no type functions. A type function
+      application can in principle expand to a type of arbitrary size,
+      and so are rejected out of hand
+
+2. The Coverage Condition. For each functional dependency,
+   ⟨tvs⟩\ :sub:`left` ``->`` ⟨tvs⟩\ :sub:`right`, of the class, every
+   type variable in S(⟨tvs⟩\ :sub:`right`) must appear in
+   S(⟨tvs⟩\ :sub:`left`), where S is the substitution mapping each type
+   variable in the class declaration to the corresponding type in the
+   instance head.
+
+These restrictions ensure that instance resolution terminates: each
+reduction step makes the problem smaller by at least one constructor.
+You can find lots of background material about the reason for these
+restrictions in the paper `Understanding functional dependencies via
+Constraint Handling
+Rules <https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/jfp06.pdf>`__.
+
+For example, these are okay:
+
+::
+
+      instance C Int [a]          -- Multiple parameters
+      instance Eq (S [a])         -- Structured type in head
+
+          -- Repeated type variable in head
+      instance C4 a a => C4 [a] [a]
+      instance Stateful (ST s) (MutVar s)
+
+          -- Head can consist of type variables only
+      instance C a
+      instance (Eq a, Show b) => C2 a b
+
+          -- Non-type variables in context
+      instance Show (s a) => Show (Sized s a)
+      instance C2 Int a => C3 Bool [a]
+      instance C2 Int a => C3 [a] b
+
+But these are not:
+
+::
+
+          -- Context assertion no smaller than head
+      instance C a => C a where ...
+          -- (C b b) has more occurrences of b than the head
+      instance C b b => Foo [b] where ...
+
+The same restrictions apply to instances generated by ``deriving``
+clauses. Thus the following is accepted:
+
+::
+
+      data MinHeap h a = H a (h a)
+        deriving (Show)
+
+because the derived instance
+
+::
+
+      instance (Show a, Show (h a)) => Show (MinHeap h a)
+
+conforms to the above rules.
+
+A useful idiom permitted by the above rules is as follows. If one allows
+overlapping instance declarations then it's quite convenient to have a
+"default instance" declaration that applies if something more specific
+does not:
+
+::
+
+      instance C a where
+        op = ... -- Default
+
+.. _undecidable-instances:
+
+Undecidable instances
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. index::
+   single: -XUndecidableInstances
+
+Sometimes even the termination rules of :ref:`instance-termination` are
+too onerous. So GHC allows you to experiment with more liberal rules: if
+you use the experimental extension :extension:`UndecidableInstances`, both the Paterson
+Conditions and the Coverage
+Condition (described in :ref:`instance-termination`) are lifted.
+Termination is still ensured by having a fixed-depth recursion stack. If
+you exceed the stack depth you get a sort of backtrace, and the
+opportunity to increase the stack depth with
+``-freduction-depth=⟨n⟩``. However, if you should exceed the default
+reduction depth limit, it is probably best just to disable depth
+checking, with ``-freduction-depth=0``. The exact depth your program
+requires depends on minutiae of your code, and it may change between
+minor GHC releases. The safest bet for released code -- if you're sure
+that it should compile in finite time -- is just to disable the check.
+
+For example, sometimes you might want to use the following to get the
+effect of a "class synonym":
+
+::
+
+      class (C1 a, C2 a, C3 a) => C a where { }
+
+      instance (C1 a, C2 a, C3 a) => C a where { }
+
+This allows you to write shorter signatures:
+
+::
+
+      f :: C a => ...
+
+instead of
+
+::
+
+      f :: (C1 a, C2 a, C3 a) => ...
+
+The restrictions on functional dependencies
+(:ref:`functional-dependencies`) are particularly troublesome. It is
+tempting to introduce type variables in the context that do not appear
+in the head, something that is excluded by the normal rules. For
+example:
+
+::
+
+      class HasConverter a b | a -> b where
+         convert :: a -> b
+
+      data Foo a = MkFoo a
+
+      instance (HasConverter a b,Show b) => Show (Foo a) where
+         show (MkFoo value) = show (convert value)
+
+This is dangerous territory, however. Here, for example, is a program
+that would make the typechecker loop:
+
+::
+
+      class D a
+      class F a b | a->b
+      instance F [a] [[a]]
+      instance (D c, F a c) => D [a]   -- 'c' is not mentioned in the head
+
+Similarly, it can be tempting to lift the coverage condition:
+
+::
+
+      class Mul a b c | a b -> c where
+        (.*.) :: a -> b -> c
+
+      instance Mul Int Int Int where (.*.) = (*)
+      instance Mul Int Float Float where x .*. y = fromIntegral x * y
+      instance Mul a b c => Mul a [b] [c] where x .*. v = map (x.*.) v
+
+The third instance declaration does not obey the coverage condition; and
+indeed the (somewhat strange) definition:
+
+::
+
+      f = \ b x y -> if b then x .*. [y] else y
+
+makes instance inference go into a loop, because it requires the
+constraint ``(Mul a [b] b)``.
+
+The :extension:`UndecidableInstances` extension is also used to lift some of the
+restrictions imposed on type family instances. See
+:ref:`type-family-decidability`.
+
+.. _instance-overlap:
+
+Overlapping instances
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. extension:: OverlappingInstances
+    :shortdesc: Enable overlapping instances.
+
+    Deprecated extension to weaken checks intended to ensure instance resolution
+    termination.
+
+.. extension:: IncoherentInstances
+    :shortdesc: Enable incoherent instances.
+        Implies :extension:`OverlappingInstances`.
+
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Deprecated extension to weaken checks intended to ensure instance resolution
+    termination.
+
+In general, as discussed in :ref:`instance-resolution`, *GHC requires
+that it be unambiguous which instance declaration should be used to
+resolve a type-class constraint*. GHC also provides a way to loosen
+the instance resolution, by allowing more than one instance to match,
+*provided there is a most specific one*. Moreover, it can be loosened
+further, by allowing more than one instance to match irrespective of
+whether there is a most specific one. This section gives the details.
+
+To control the choice of instance, it is possible to specify the overlap
+behavior for individual instances with a pragma, written immediately
+after the ``instance`` keyword. The pragma may be one of:
+``{-# OVERLAPPING #-}``, ``{-# OVERLAPPABLE #-}``, ``{-# OVERLAPS #-}``,
+or ``{-# INCOHERENT #-}``.
+
+The matching behaviour is also influenced by two module-level language
+extension flags: :extension:`OverlappingInstances` and
+:extension:`IncoherentInstances`. These extensions are now
+deprecated (since GHC 7.10) in favour of the fine-grained per-instance
+pragmas.
+
+A more precise specification is as follows. The willingness to be
+overlapped or incoherent is a property of the *instance declaration*
+itself, controlled as follows:
+
+-  An instance is *incoherent* if: it has an ``INCOHERENT`` pragma; or
+   if the instance has no pragma and it appears in a module compiled
+   with :extension:`IncoherentInstances`.
+
+-  An instance is *overlappable* if: it has an ``OVERLAPPABLE`` or
+   ``OVERLAPS`` pragma; or if the instance has no pragma and it appears
+   in a module compiled with :extension:`OverlappingInstances`; or if the
+   instance is incoherent.
+
+-  An instance is *overlapping* if: it has an ``OVERLAPPING`` or
+   ``OVERLAPS`` pragma; or if the instance has no pragma and it appears
+   in a module compiled with :extension:`OverlappingInstances`; or if the
+   instance is incoherent.
+
+Now suppose that, in some client module, we are searching for an
+instance of the *target constraint* ``(C ty1 .. tyn)``. The search works
+like this:
+
+-  Find all instances :math:`I` that *match* the target constraint; that is, the
+   target constraint is a substitution instance of :math:`I`. These instance
+   declarations are the *candidates*.
+
+-  If no candidates remain, the search failes
+
+-  Eliminate any candidate :math:`IX` for which there is another candidate
+   :math:`IY` such that both of the following hold:
+
+   -  :math:`IY` is strictly more specific than :math:`IX`.  That
+      is, :math:`IY` is a substitution instance of :math:`IX` but not vice versa.
+
+   -  Either :math:`IX` is *overlappable*, or :math:`IY` is *overlapping*. (This
+      "either/or" design, rather than a "both/and" design, allow a
+      client to deliberately override an instance from a library,
+      without requiring a change to the library.)
+
+-  If all the remaining candidates are incoherent, the search succeeds, returning
+   an arbitrary surviving candidate.
+
+-  If more than one non-incoherent candidate remains, the search fails.
+
+-  Otherwise there is exactly one non-incoherent candidate; call it the
+   "prime candidate".
+
+-  Now find all instances, or in-scope given constraints, that *unify* with
+   the target constraint,
+   but do not *match* it. Such non-candidate instances might match when
+   the target constraint is further instantiated. If all of them are
+   incoherent top-level instances, the search succeeds, returning the prime candidate.
+   Otherwise the search fails.
+
+Notice that these rules are not influenced by flag settings in the
+client module, where the instances are *used*. These rules make it
+possible for a library author to design a library that relies on
+overlapping instances without the client having to know.
+
+Errors are reported *lazily* (when attempting to solve a constraint),
+rather than *eagerly* (when the instances themselves are defined).
+Consider, for example ::
+
+      instance C Int  b where ..
+      instance C a Bool where ..
+
+These potentially overlap, but GHC will not complain about the instance
+declarations themselves, regardless of flag settings. If we later try to
+solve the constraint ``(C Int Char)`` then only the first instance
+matches, and all is well. Similarly with ``(C Bool Bool)``. But if we
+try to solve ``(C Int Bool)``, both instances match and an error is
+reported.
+
+As a more substantial example of the rules in action, consider ::
+
+      instance {-# OVERLAPPABLE #-} context1 => C Int b     where ...  -- (A)
+      instance {-# OVERLAPPABLE #-} context2 => C a   Bool  where ...  -- (B)
+      instance {-# OVERLAPPABLE #-} context3 => C a   [b]   where ...  -- (C)
+      instance {-# OVERLAPPING  #-} context4 => C Int [Int] where ...  -- (D)
+
+Now suppose that the type inference engine needs to solve the constraint
+``C Int [Int]``. This constraint matches instances (A), (C) and (D), but
+the last is more specific, and hence is chosen.
+
+If (D) did not exist then (A) and (C) would still be matched, but
+neither is most specific. In that case, the program would be rejected,
+unless :extension:`IncoherentInstances` is enabled, in which case it would be
+accepted and (A) or (C) would be chosen arbitrarily.
+
+An instance declaration is *more specific* than another iff the head of
+former is a substitution instance of the latter. For example (D) is
+"more specific" than (C) because you can get from (C) to (D) by
+substituting ``a := Int``.
+
+The final bullet (about unifiying instances)
+makes GHC conservative about committing to an
+overlapping instance. For example: ::
+
+      f :: [b] -> [b]
+      f x = ...
+
+Suppose that from the RHS of ``f`` we get the constraint ``C b [b]``.
+But GHC does not commit to instance (C), because in a particular call of
+``f``, ``b`` might be instantiated to ``Int``, in which case instance (D)
+would be more specific still. So GHC rejects the program.
+
+If, however, you enable the extension :extension:`IncoherentInstances` when compiling
+the module that contains (D), GHC will instead pick (C), without
+complaining about the problem of subsequent instantiations.
+
+Notice that we gave a type signature to ``f``, so GHC had to *check*
+that ``f`` has the specified type. Suppose instead we do not give a type
+signature, asking GHC to *infer* it instead. In this case, GHC will
+refrain from simplifying the constraint ``C Int [b]`` (for the same
+reason as before) but, rather than rejecting the program, it will infer
+the type ::
+
+      f :: C b [b] => [b] -> [b]
+
+That postpones the question of which instance to pick to the call site
+for ``f`` by which time more is known about the type ``b``. You can
+write this type signature yourself if you use the
+:extension:`FlexibleContexts` extension.
+
+Exactly the same situation can arise in instance declarations
+themselves. Suppose we have ::
+
+      class Foo a where
+         f :: a -> a
+      instance Foo [b] where
+         f x = ...
+
+and, as before, the constraint ``C Int [b]`` arises from ``f``'s right
+hand side. GHC will reject the instance, complaining as before that it
+does not know how to resolve the constraint ``C Int [b]``, because it
+matches more than one instance declaration. The solution is to postpone
+the choice by adding the constraint to the context of the instance
+declaration, thus: ::
+
+      instance C Int [b] => Foo [b] where
+         f x = ...
+
+(You need :extension:`FlexibleInstances` to do this.)
+
+In the unification check in the final bullet, GHC also uses the
+"in-scope given constraints".  Consider for example ::
+
+   instance C a Int
+
+   g :: forall b c. C b Int => blah
+   g = ...needs (C c Int)...
+
+Here GHC will not solve the constraint ``(C c Int)`` from the
+top-level instance, because a particular call of ``g`` might
+instantiate both ``b`` and ``c`` to the same type, which would
+allow the constraint to be solved in a different way.  This latter
+restriction is principally to make the constraint-solver complete.
+(Interested folk can read ``Note [Instance and Given overlap]`` in ``TcInteract``.)
+It is easy to avoid: in a type signature avoid a constraint that
+matches a top-level instance.  The flag :ghc-flag:`-Wsimplifiable-class-constraints` warns about such signatures.
+
+.. warning::
+    Overlapping instances must be used with care. They can give
+    rise to incoherence (i.e. different instance choices are made in
+    different parts of the program) even without :extension:`IncoherentInstances`.
+    Consider: ::
+
+        {-# LANGUAGE OverlappingInstances #-}
+        module Help where
+
+            class MyShow a where
+            myshow :: a -> String
+
+            instance MyShow a => MyShow [a] where
+            myshow xs = concatMap myshow xs
+
+            showHelp :: MyShow a => [a] -> String
+            showHelp xs = myshow xs
+
+        {-# LANGUAGE FlexibleInstances, OverlappingInstances #-}
+        module Main where
+            import Help
+
+            data T = MkT
+
+            instance MyShow T where
+            myshow x = "Used generic instance"
+
+            instance MyShow [T] where
+            myshow xs = "Used more specific instance"
+
+            main = do { print (myshow [MkT]); print (showHelp [MkT]) }
+
+    In function ``showHelp`` GHC sees no overlapping instances, and so uses
+    the ``MyShow [a]`` instance without complaint. In the call to ``myshow``
+    in ``main``, GHC resolves the ``MyShow [T]`` constraint using the
+    overlapping instance declaration in module ``Main``. As a result, the
+    program prints
+
+    .. code-block:: none
+
+        "Used more specific instance"
+        "Used generic instance"
+
+    (An alternative possible behaviour, not currently implemented, would be
+    to reject module ``Help`` on the grounds that a later instance
+    declaration might overlap the local one.)
+
+.. _instance-sigs:
+
+Instance signatures: type signatures in instance declarations
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. extension:: InstanceSigs
+    :shortdesc: Enable instance signatures.
+
+    :since: 7.6.1
+
+    Allow type signatures for members in instance definitions.
+
+In Haskell, you can't write a type signature in an instance declaration,
+but it is sometimes convenient to do so, and the language extension
+:extension:`InstanceSigs` allows you to do so. For example: ::
+
+      data T a = MkT a a
+      instance Eq a => Eq (T a) where
+        (==) :: T a -> T a -> Bool   -- The signature
+        (==) (MkT x1 x2) (MkTy y1 y2) = x1==y1 && x2==y2
+
+Some details
+
+-  The type signature in the instance declaration must be more
+   polymorphic than (or the same as) the one in the class declaration,
+   instantiated with the instance type. For example, this is fine: ::
+
+         instance Eq a => Eq (T a) where
+            (==) :: forall b. b -> b -> Bool
+            (==) x y = True
+
+   Here the signature in the instance declaration is more polymorphic
+   than that required by the instantiated class method.
+
+-  The code for the method in the instance declaration is typechecked
+   against the type signature supplied in the instance declaration, as
+   you would expect. So if the instance signature is more polymorphic
+   than required, the code must be too.
+
+-  One stylistic reason for wanting to write a type signature is simple
+   documentation. Another is that you may want to bring scoped type
+   variables into scope. For example: ::
+
+       class C a where
+         foo :: b -> a -> (a, [b])
+
+       instance C a => C (T a) where
+         foo :: forall b. b -> T a -> (T a, [b])
+         foo x (T y) = (T y, xs)
+            where
+              xs :: [b]
+              xs = [x,x,x]
+
+   Provided that you also specify :extension:`ScopedTypeVariables`
+   (:ref:`scoped-type-variables`), the ``forall b`` scopes over the
+   definition of ``foo``, and in particular over the type signature for
+   ``xs``.
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/intro.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/intro.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..299e756
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/intro.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+Introduction
+============
+
+As with all known Haskell systems, GHC implements some extensions to the
+standard Haskell language. They can all be enabled or disabled by command line
+flags or language pragmas. By default GHC understands the most recent Haskell
+version it supports, plus a handful of extensions.
+
+Some of the extensions serve to give you access to the
+underlying facilities with which we implement Haskell. Thus, you can get
+at the Raw Iron, if you are willing to write some non-portable code at a
+more primitive level. You need not be “stuck” on performance because of
+the implementation costs of Haskell's "high-level" features—you can
+always code "under" them. In an extreme case, you can write all your
+time-critical code in C, and then just glue it together with Haskell!
+
+
+.. toctree::
+    :maxdepth: 1
+
+    control
+    table
+    stolen_syntax
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/kind_signatures.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/kind_signatures.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2c25033
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/kind_signatures.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+.. _kinding:
+
+Explicitly-kinded quantification
+--------------------------------
+
+.. extension:: KindSignatures
+    :shortdesc: Enable kind signatures.
+        Implied by :extension:`TypeFamilies` and :extension:`PolyKinds`.
+
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Allow explicit kind signatures on type variables.
+
+Haskell infers the kind of each type variable. Sometimes it is nice to
+be able to give the kind explicitly as (machine-checked) documentation,
+just as it is nice to give a type signature for a function. On some
+occasions, it is essential to do so. For example, in his paper
+"Restricted Data Types in Haskell" (Haskell Workshop 1999) John Hughes
+had to define the data type: ::
+
+    data Set cxt a = Set [a]
+                   | Unused (cxt a -> ())
+
+The only use for the ``Unused`` constructor was to force the correct
+kind for the type variable ``cxt``.
+
+GHC now instead allows you to specify the kind of a type variable
+directly, wherever a type variable is explicitly bound, with the extension
+:extension:`KindSignatures`.
+
+This extension enables kind signatures in the following places:
+
+-  ``data`` declarations: ::
+
+         data Set (cxt :: Type -> Type) a = Set [a]
+
+-  ``type`` declarations: ::
+
+         type T (f :: Type -> Type) = f Int
+
+-  ``class`` declarations: ::
+
+         class (Eq a) => C (f :: Type -> Type) a where ...
+
+-  ``forall``\'s in type signatures: ::
+
+         f :: forall (cxt :: Type -> Type). Set cxt Int
+
+The parentheses are required.
+
+As part of the same extension, you can put kind annotations in types as
+well. Thus: ::
+
+       f :: (Int :: Type) -> Int
+       g :: forall a. a -> (a :: Type)
+
+The syntax is
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+       atype ::= '(' ctype '::' kind ')
+
+The parentheses are required.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/lambda_case.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/lambda_case.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a65c1e8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/lambda_case.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+.. _lambda-case:
+
+Lambda-case
+-----------
+
+.. extension:: LambdaCase
+    :shortdesc: Enable lambda-case expressions.
+
+    :since: 7.6.1
+
+    Allow the use of lambda-case syntax.
+
+The :extension:`LambdaCase` extension enables expressions of the form ::
+
+      \case { p1 -> e1; ...; pN -> eN }
+
+which is equivalent to ::
+
+      \freshName -> case freshName of { p1 -> e1; ...; pN -> eN }
+
+Note that ``\case`` starts a layout, so you can write ::
+
+      \case
+        p1 -> e1
+        ...
+        pN -> eN
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/let_generalisation.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/let_generalisation.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..07e0c6d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/let_generalisation.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,68 @@
+.. _mono-local-binds:
+
+Let-generalisation
+------------------
+
+.. extension:: MonoLocalBinds
+    :shortdesc: Enable do not generalise local bindings.
+        Implied by :extension:`TypeFamilies` and :extension:`GADTs`.
+
+    :since: 6.12.1
+
+    Infer less polymorphic types for local bindings by default.
+
+An ML-style language usually generalises the type of any ``let``\-bound or
+``where``\-bound variable, so that it is as polymorphic as possible. With the
+extension :extension:`MonoLocalBinds` GHC implements a slightly more conservative
+policy, using the following rules:
+
+-  A variable is *closed* if and only if
+
+   -  the variable is let-bound
+
+   -  one of the following holds:
+
+      -  the variable has an explicit type signature that has no free
+         type variables, or
+
+      -  its binding group is fully generalised (see next bullet)
+
+-  A binding group is *fully generalised* if and only if
+
+   -  each of its free variables is either imported or closed, and
+
+   -  the binding is not affected by the monomorphism restriction
+      (`Haskell Report, Section
+      4.5.5 <http://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/decls.html#sect4.5.5>`__)
+
+For example, consider ::
+
+    f x = x + 1
+    g x = let h y = f y * 2
+              k z = z+x
+          in  h x + k x
+
+Here ``f`` is generalised because it has no free variables; and its
+binding group is unaffected by the monomorphism restriction; and hence
+``f`` is closed. The same reasoning applies to ``g``, except that it has
+one closed free variable, namely ``f``. Similarly ``h`` is closed, *even
+though it is not bound at top level*, because its only free variable
+``f`` is closed. But ``k`` is not closed, because it mentions ``x``
+which is not closed (because it is not let-bound).
+
+Notice that a top-level binding that is affected by the monomorphism
+restriction is not closed, and hence may in turn prevent generalisation
+of bindings that mention it.
+
+The rationale for this more conservative strategy is given in `the
+papers <https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/jfp-outsidein.pdf>`__
+"Let should not be generalised" and "Modular type inference with local
+assumptions", and a related `blog post
+<https://www.haskell.org/ghc/blog/20100930-LetGeneralisationInGhc7.html>`__.
+
+The extension :extension:`MonoLocalBinds` is implied by :extension:`TypeFamilies`
+and :extension:`GADTs`. You can switch it off again with
+:extension:`NoMonoLocalBinds <MonoLocalBinds>` but type inference becomes
+less predictable if you do so. (Read the papers!)
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/levity_polymorphism.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/levity_polymorphism.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d795491
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/levity_polymorphism.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,125 @@
+.. _runtime-rep:
+
+Levity polymorphism
+===================
+
+In order to allow full flexibility in how kinds are used, it is necessary
+to use the kind system to differentiate between boxed, lifted types
+(normal, everyday types like ``Int`` and ``[Bool]``) and unboxed, primitive
+types (:ref:`primitives`) like ``Int#``. We thus have so-called levity
+polymorphism.
+
+Here are the key definitions, all available from ``GHC.Exts``: ::
+
+  TYPE :: RuntimeRep -> Type   -- highly magical, built into GHC
+
+  data RuntimeRep = LiftedRep     -- for things like `Int`
+                  | UnliftedRep   -- for things like `Array#`
+                  | IntRep        -- for `Int#`
+                  | TupleRep [RuntimeRep]  -- unboxed tuples, indexed by the representations of the elements
+                  | SumRep [RuntimeRep]    -- unboxed sums, indexed by the representations of the disjuncts
+                  | ...
+
+  type Type = TYPE LiftedRep    -- Type is just an ordinary type synonym
+
+The idea is that we have a new fundamental type constant ``TYPE``, which
+is parameterised by a ``RuntimeRep``. We thus get ``Int# :: TYPE 'IntRep``
+and ``Bool :: TYPE 'LiftedRep``. Anything with a type of the form
+``TYPE x`` can appear to either side of a function arrow ``->``. We can
+thus say that ``->`` has type
+``TYPE r1 -> TYPE r2 -> TYPE 'LiftedRep``. The result is always lifted
+because all functions are lifted in GHC.
+
+.. _levity-polymorphic-restrictions:
+
+No levity-polymorphic variables or arguments
+--------------------------------------------
+
+If GHC didn't have to compile programs that run in the real world, that
+would be the end of the story. But representation polymorphism can cause
+quite a bit of trouble for GHC's code generator. Consider ::
+
+  bad :: forall (r1 :: RuntimeRep) (r2 :: RuntimeRep)
+                (a :: TYPE r1) (b :: TYPE r2).
+         (a -> b) -> a -> b
+  bad f x = f x
+
+This seems like a generalisation of the standard ``$`` operator. If we
+think about compiling this to runnable code, though, problems appear.
+In particular, when we call ``bad``, we must somehow pass ``x`` into
+``bad``. How wide (that is, how many bits) is ``x``? Is it a pointer?
+What kind of register (floating-point or integral) should ``x`` go in?
+It's all impossible to say, because ``x``'s type, ``a :: TYPE r1`` is
+levity polymorphic. We thus forbid such constructions, via the
+following straightforward rule:
+
+    No variable may have a levity-polymorphic type.
+
+This eliminates ``bad`` because the variable ``x`` would have a
+representation-polymorphic type.
+
+However, not all is lost. We can still do this: ::
+
+  ($) :: forall r (a :: Type) (b :: TYPE r).
+         (a -> b) -> a -> b
+  f $ x = f x
+
+Here, only ``b`` is levity polymorphic. There are no variables
+with a levity-polymorphic type. And the code generator has no
+trouble with this. Indeed, this is the true type of GHC's ``$`` operator,
+slightly more general than the Haskell 98 version.
+
+Because the code generator must store and move arguments as well
+as variables, the logic above applies equally well to function arguments,
+which may not be levity-polymorphic.
+
+
+Levity-polymorphic bottoms
+--------------------------
+
+We can use levity polymorphism to good effect with ``error``
+and ``undefined``, whose types are given here: ::
+
+  undefined :: forall (r :: RuntimeRep) (a :: TYPE r).
+               HasCallStack => a
+  error :: forall (r :: RuntimeRep) (a :: TYPE r).
+           HasCallStack => String -> a
+
+These functions do not bind a levity-polymorphic variable, and
+so are accepted. Their polymorphism allows users to use these to conveniently
+stub out functions that return unboxed types.
+
+Printing levity-polymorphic types
+---------------------------------
+
+.. ghc-flag:: -fprint-explicit-runtime-reps
+    :shortdesc: Print ``RuntimeRep`` variables in types which are
+        runtime-representation polymorphic.
+    :type: dynamic
+    :reverse: -fno-print-explicit-runtime-reps
+    :category: verbosity
+
+    Print ``RuntimeRep`` parameters as they appear; otherwise, they are
+    defaulted to ``'LiftedRep``.
+
+Most GHC users will not need to worry about levity polymorphism
+or unboxed types. For these users, seeing the levity polymorphism
+in the type of ``$`` is unhelpful. And thus, by default, it is suppressed,
+by supposing all type variables of type ``RuntimeRep`` to be ``'LiftedRep``
+when printing, and printing ``TYPE 'LiftedRep`` as ``Type`` (or ``*`` when
+:extension:`StarIsType` is on).
+
+Should you wish to see levity polymorphism in your types, enable
+the flag :ghc-flag:`-fprint-explicit-runtime-reps`. For example,
+
+    .. code-block:: none
+
+        ghci> :t ($)
+        ($) :: (a -> b) -> a -> b
+        ghci> :set -fprint-explicit-runtime-reps
+        ghci> :t ($)
+        ($)
+          :: forall (r :: GHC.Types.RuntimeRep) a (b :: TYPE r).
+             (a -> b) -> a -> b
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/liberal_type_synonyms.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/liberal_type_synonyms.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6d8229b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/liberal_type_synonyms.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,81 @@
+.. _type-synonyms:
+
+Liberalised type synonyms
+-------------------------
+
+.. extension:: LiberalTypeSynonyms
+    :shortdesc: Enable liberalised type synonyms.
+
+    :implies: :extension:`ExplicitForAll`
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Relax many of the Haskell 98 rules on type synonym definitions.
+
+Type synonyms are like macros at the type level, but Haskell 98 imposes
+many rules on individual synonym declarations. With the
+:extension:`LiberalTypeSynonyms` extension, GHC does validity checking on types
+*only after expanding type synonyms*. That means that GHC can be very
+much more liberal about type synonyms than Haskell 98.
+
+-  You can write a ``forall`` (including overloading) in a type synonym,
+   thus: ::
+
+         type Discard a = forall b. Show b => a -> b -> (a, String)
+
+         f :: Discard a
+         f x y = (x, show y)
+
+         g :: Discard Int -> (Int,String)    -- A rank-2 type
+         g f = f 3 True
+
+-  If you also use :extension:`UnboxedTuples`, you can write an unboxed tuple
+   in a type synonym: ::
+
+         type Pr = (# Int, Int #)
+
+         h :: Int -> Pr
+         h x = (# x, x #)
+
+-  You can apply a type synonym to a forall type: ::
+
+         type Foo a = a -> a -> Bool
+
+         f :: Foo (forall b. b->b)
+
+   After expanding the synonym, ``f`` has the legal (in GHC) type: ::
+
+         f :: (forall b. b->b) -> (forall b. b->b) -> Bool
+
+-  You can apply a type synonym to a partially applied type synonym: ::
+
+         type Generic i o = forall x. i x -> o x
+         type Id x = x
+
+         foo :: Generic Id []
+
+   After expanding the synonym, ``foo`` has the legal (in GHC) type: ::
+
+         foo :: forall x. x -> [x]
+
+GHC currently does kind checking before expanding synonyms (though even
+that could be changed).
+
+After expanding type synonyms, GHC does validity checking on types,
+looking for the following malformedness which isn't detected simply by
+kind checking:
+
+-  Type constructor applied to a type involving for-alls (if
+   :extension:`ImpredicativeTypes` is off)
+
+-  Partially-applied type synonym.
+
+So, for example, this will be rejected: ::
+
+      type Pr = forall a. a
+
+      h :: [Pr]
+      h = ...
+
+because GHC does not allow type constructors applied to for-all types.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/literals.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/literals.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fbb6133
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/literals.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+.. _literals-extns:
+
+Literals
+========
+
+.. toctree::
+    :maxdepth: 1
+
+    negative_literals
+    binary_literals
+    hex_float_literals
+    num_decimals
+    numeric_underscores
+    overloaded_strings
+    overloaded_labels
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/local_fixity_decls.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/local_fixity_decls.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fe9b319
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/local_fixity_decls.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+.. _local-fixity-declarations:
+
+Local Fixity Declarations
+-------------------------
+
+A careful reading of the Haskell 98 Report reveals that fixity
+declarations (``infix``, ``infixl``, and ``infixr``) are permitted to
+appear inside local bindings such those introduced by ``let`` and
+``where``. However, the Haskell Report does not specify the semantics of
+such bindings very precisely.
+
+In GHC, a fixity declaration may accompany a local binding: ::
+
+    let f = ...
+        infixr 3 `f`
+    in
+        ...
+
+and the fixity declaration applies wherever the binding is in scope. For
+example, in a ``let``, it applies in the right-hand sides of other
+``let``-bindings and the body of the ``let``\ C. Or, in recursive ``do``
+expressions (:ref:`recursive-do-notation`), the local fixity
+declarations of a ``let`` statement scope over other statements in the
+group, just as the bound name does.
+
+Moreover, a local fixity declaration *must* accompany a local binding
+of that name: it is not possible to revise the fixity of name bound
+elsewhere, as in ::
+
+    let infixr 9 $ in ...
+
+Because local fixity declarations are technically Haskell 98, no extension is
+necessary to enable them.
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/magic_hash.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/magic_hash.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3873620
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/magic_hash.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+.. _magic-hash:
+
+The magic hash
+--------------
+
+.. extension:: MagicHash
+    :shortdesc: Allow ``#`` as a postfix modifier on identifiers.
+
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Enables the use of the hash character (``#``) as an identifier suffix.
+
+The language extension :extension:`MagicHash` allows ``#`` as a postfix modifier
+to identifiers. Thus, ``x#`` is a valid variable, and ``T#`` is a valid type
+constructor or data constructor.
+
+The hash sign does not change semantics at all. We tend to use variable
+names ending in "#" for unboxed values or types (e.g. ``Int#``), but
+there is no requirement to do so; they are just plain ordinary
+variables. Nor does the :extension:`MagicHash` extension bring anything into
+scope. For example, to bring ``Int#`` into scope you must import
+``GHC.Prim`` (see :ref:`primitives`); the :extension:`MagicHash` extension then
+allows you to *refer* to the ``Int#`` that is now in scope. Note that
+with this option, the meaning of ``x#y = 0`` is changed: it defines a
+function ``x#`` taking a single argument ``y``; to define the operator
+``#``, put a space: ``x # y = 0``.
+
+The :extension:`MagicHash` also enables some new forms of literals (see
+:ref:`glasgow-unboxed`):
+
+-  ``'x'#`` has type ``Char#``
+
+-  ``"foo"#`` has type ``Addr#``
+
+-  ``3#`` has type ``Int#``. In general, any Haskell integer lexeme
+   followed by a ``#`` is an ``Int#`` literal, e.g. ``-0x3A#`` as well as
+   ``32#``.
+
+-  ``3##`` has type ``Word#``. In general, any non-negative Haskell
+   integer lexeme followed by ``##`` is a ``Word#``.
+
+-  ``3.2#`` has type ``Float#``.
+
+-  ``3.2##`` has type ``Double#``
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/misc.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/misc.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7e51ffe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/misc.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+Miscellaneous
+=============
+
+.. toctree::
+    :maxdepth: 1
+
+    rewrite_rules
+    special_builtin
+    generics
+    assert
+    callstack
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/monad_comprehensions.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/monad_comprehensions.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4ed99b1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/monad_comprehensions.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,167 @@
+.. _monad-comprehensions:
+
+Monad comprehensions
+--------------------
+
+.. index::
+   single: monad comprehensions
+
+.. extension:: MonadComprehensions
+    :shortdesc: Enable monad comprehensions.
+
+    :since: 7.2.1
+
+    Enable list comprehension syntax for arbitrary monads.
+
+Monad comprehensions generalise the list comprehension notation,
+including parallel comprehensions (:ref:`parallel-list-comprehensions`)
+and transform comprehensions (:ref:`generalised-list-comprehensions`) to
+work for any monad.
+
+Monad comprehensions support:
+
+-  Bindings: ::
+
+       [ x + y | x <- Just 1, y <- Just 2 ]
+
+   Bindings are translated with the ``(>>=)`` and ``return`` functions
+   to the usual do-notation: ::
+
+       do x <- Just 1
+          y <- Just 2
+          return (x+y)
+
+-  Guards: ::
+
+       [ x | x <- [1..10], x <= 5 ]
+
+   Guards are translated with the ``guard`` function, which requires a
+   ``MonadPlus`` instance: ::
+
+       do x <- [1..10]
+          guard (x <= 5)
+          return x
+
+-  Transform statements (as with :extension:`TransformListComp`): ::
+
+       [ x+y | x <- [1..10], y <- [1..x], then take 2 ]
+
+   This translates to: ::
+
+       do (x,y) <- take 2 (do x <- [1..10]
+                              y <- [1..x]
+                              return (x,y))
+          return (x+y)
+
+-  Group statements (as with :extension:`TransformListComp`):
+
+   ::
+
+       [ x | x <- [1,1,2,2,3], then group by x using GHC.Exts.groupWith ]
+       [ x | x <- [1,1,2,2,3], then group using myGroup ]
+
+-  Parallel statements (as with :extension:`ParallelListComp`):
+
+   ::
+
+       [ (x+y) | x <- [1..10]
+               | y <- [11..20]
+               ]
+
+   Parallel statements are translated using the ``mzip`` function, which
+   requires a ``MonadZip`` instance defined in
+   :base-ref:`Control.Monad.Zip.`:
+
+   ::
+
+       do (x,y) <- mzip (do x <- [1..10]
+                            return x)
+                        (do y <- [11..20]
+                            return y)
+          return (x+y)
+
+All these features are enabled by default if the :extension:`MonadComprehensions`
+extension is enabled. The types and more detailed examples on how to use
+comprehensions are explained in the previous chapters
+:ref:`generalised-list-comprehensions` and
+:ref:`parallel-list-comprehensions`. In general you just have to replace
+the type ``[a]`` with the type ``Monad m => m a`` for monad
+comprehensions.
+
+.. note::
+    Even though most of these examples are using the list monad, monad
+    comprehensions work for any monad. The ``base`` package offers all
+    necessary instances for lists, which make :extension:`MonadComprehensions`
+    backward compatible to built-in, transform and parallel list
+    comprehensions.
+
+More formally, the desugaring is as follows. We write ``D[ e | Q]`` to
+mean the desugaring of the monad comprehension ``[ e | Q]``:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    Expressions: e
+    Declarations: d
+    Lists of qualifiers: Q,R,S
+
+    -- Basic forms
+    D[ e | ]               = return e
+    D[ e | p <- e, Q ]  = e >>= \p -> D[ e | Q ]
+    D[ e | e, Q ]          = guard e >> \p -> D[ e | Q ]
+    D[ e | let d, Q ]      = let d in D[ e | Q ]
+
+    -- Parallel comprehensions (iterate for multiple parallel branches)
+    D[ e | (Q | R), S ]    = mzip D[ Qv | Q ] D[ Rv | R ] >>= \(Qv,Rv) -> D[ e | S ]
+
+    -- Transform comprehensions
+    D[ e | Q then f, R ]                  = f D[ Qv | Q ] >>= \Qv -> D[ e | R ]
+
+    D[ e | Q then f by b, R ]             = f (\Qv -> b) D[ Qv | Q ] >>= \Qv -> D[ e | R ]
+
+    D[ e | Q then group using f, R ]      = f D[ Qv | Q ] >>= \ys ->
+                                            case (fmap selQv1 ys, ..., fmap selQvn ys) of
+                                             Qv -> D[ e | R ]
+
+    D[ e | Q then group by b using f, R ] = f (\Qv -> b) D[ Qv | Q ] >>= \ys ->
+                                            case (fmap selQv1 ys, ..., fmap selQvn ys) of
+                                               Qv -> D[ e | R ]
+
+    where  Qv is the tuple of variables bound by Q (and used subsequently)
+           selQvi is a selector mapping Qv to the ith component of Qv
+
+    Operator     Standard binding       Expected type
+    --------------------------------------------------------------------
+    return       GHC.Base               t1 -> m t2
+    (>>=)        GHC.Base               m1 t1 -> (t2 -> m2 t3) -> m3 t3
+    (>>)         GHC.Base               m1 t1 -> m2 t2         -> m3 t3
+    guard        Control.Monad          t1 -> m t2
+    fmap         GHC.Base               forall a b. (a->b) -> n a -> n b
+    mzip         Control.Monad.Zip      forall a b. m a -> m b -> m (a,b)
+
+The comprehension should typecheck when its desugaring would typecheck,
+except that (as discussed in :ref:`generalised-list-comprehensions`) in the
+"then ``f``" and "then group using ``f``" clauses, when the "by ``b``" qualifier
+is omitted, argument ``f`` should have a polymorphic type. In particular, "then
+``Data.List.sort``" and "then group using ``Data.List.group``" are
+insufficiently polymorphic.
+
+Monad comprehensions support rebindable syntax
+(:ref:`rebindable-syntax`). Without rebindable syntax, the operators
+from the "standard binding" module are used; with rebindable syntax, the
+operators are looked up in the current lexical scope. For example,
+parallel comprehensions will be typechecked and desugared using whatever
+"``mzip``" is in scope.
+
+The rebindable operators must have the "Expected type" given in the
+table above. These types are surprisingly general. For example, you can
+use a bind operator with the type
+
+::
+
+    (>>=) :: T x y a -> (a -> T y z b) -> T x z b
+
+In the case of transform comprehensions, notice that the groups are
+parameterised over some arbitrary type ``n`` (provided it has an
+``fmap``, as well as the comprehension being over an arbitrary monad.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/monadfail_desugaring.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/monadfail_desugaring.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ddc6cff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/monadfail_desugaring.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+.. _monadfail-desugaring:
+
+New monadic failure desugaring mechanism
+----------------------------------------
+
+.. extension:: MonadFailDesugaring
+    :shortdesc: Enable monadfail desugaring.
+
+    :since: 8.0.1
+
+    Use the ``MonadFail.fail`` instead of the legacy ``Monad.fail`` function
+    when desugaring refutable patterns in ``do`` blocks.
+
+The ``-XMonadFailDesugaring`` extension switches the desugaring of
+``do``-blocks to use ``MonadFail.fail`` instead of ``Monad.fail``.
+
+This extension is enabled by default since GHC 8.6.1, under the
+`MonadFail Proposal (MFP)
+<https://prime.haskell.org/wiki/Libraries/Proposals/MonadFail>`__.
+
+This extension is temporary, and will be deprecated in a future release.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/monomorphism.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/monomorphism.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d71984b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/monomorphism.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+.. _monomorphism:
+
+Switching off the Monomorphism Restriction
+------------------------------------------
+
+.. extension:: NoMonomorphismRestriction
+    :shortdesc: Disable the monomorphism restriction.
+
+    :default: on
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Prevents the compiler from applying the monomorphism restriction to
+    bindings lacking explicit type signatures.
+
+Haskell's monomorphism restriction (see `Section
+4.5.5 <http://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/decls.html#sect4.5.5>`__ of
+the Haskell Report) can be completely switched off by
+:extension:`NoMonomorphismRestriction`. Since GHC 7.8.1, the monomorphism
+restriction is switched off by default in GHCi's interactive options
+(see :ref:`ghci-interactive-options`).
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/multi_param_type_classes.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/multi_param_type_classes.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a87dba7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/multi_param_type_classes.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+.. _multi-param-type-classes:
+
+Multi-parameter type classes
+============================
+
+.. extension:: MultiParamTypeClasses
+    :shortdesc: Enable multi parameter type classes.
+         Implied by :extension:`FunctionalDependencies`.
+
+    :implies: :extension:`ConstrainedClassMethods`
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Allow the definition of typeclasses with more than one parameter.
+
+Multi-parameter type classes are permitted, with extension
+:extension:`MultiParamTypeClasses`. For example: ::
+
+      class Collection c a where
+          union :: c a -> c a -> c a
+          ...etc.
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/multiway_if.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/multiway_if.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0db010c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/multiway_if.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,53 @@
+.. _multi-way-if:
+
+Multi-way if-expressions
+------------------------
+
+.. extension:: MultiWayIf
+    :shortdesc: Enable multi-way if-expressions.
+
+    :since: 7.6.1
+
+    Allow the use of multi-way-``if`` syntax.
+
+With :extension:`MultiWayIf` extension GHC accepts conditional expressions with
+multiple branches: ::
+
+      if | guard1 -> expr1
+         | ...
+         | guardN -> exprN
+
+which is roughly equivalent to ::
+
+      case () of
+        _ | guard1 -> expr1
+        ...
+        _ | guardN -> exprN
+
+Multi-way if expressions introduce a new layout context. So the example
+above is equivalent to: ::
+
+      if { | guard1 -> expr1
+         ; | ...
+         ; | guardN -> exprN
+         }
+
+The following behaves as expected: ::
+
+      if | guard1 -> if | guard2 -> expr2
+                        | guard3 -> expr3
+         | guard4 -> expr4
+
+because layout translates it as ::
+
+      if { | guard1 -> if { | guard2 -> expr2
+                          ; | guard3 -> expr3
+                          }
+         ; | guard4 -> expr4
+         }
+
+Layout with multi-way if works in the same way as other layout contexts,
+except that the semi-colons between guards in a multi-way if are
+optional. So it is not necessary to line up all the guards at the same
+column; this is consistent with the way guards work in function
+definitions and case expressions.
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/negative_literals.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/negative_literals.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..27a31c9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/negative_literals.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+.. _negative-literals:
+
+Negative literals
+-----------------
+
+.. extension:: NegativeLiterals
+    :shortdesc: Enable support for negative literals.
+
+    :since: 7.8.1
+
+    Enable the use of un-parenthesized negative numeric literals.
+
+The literal ``-123`` is, according to Haskell98 and Haskell 2010,
+desugared as ``negate (fromInteger 123)``. The language extension
+:extension:`NegativeLiterals` means that it is instead desugared as
+``fromInteger (-123)``.
+
+This can make a difference when the positive and negative range of a
+numeric data type don't match up. For example, in 8-bit arithmetic -128
+is representable, but +128 is not. So ``negate (fromInteger 128)`` will
+elicit an unexpected integer-literal-overflow message.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/newtype_deriving.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/newtype_deriving.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8e91e4f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/newtype_deriving.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,369 @@
+.. _newtype-deriving:
+
+Generalised derived instances for newtypes
+------------------------------------------
+
+.. extension:: GeneralisedNewtypeDeriving
+               GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving
+    :shortdesc: Enable newtype deriving.
+
+    :since: 6.8.1. British spelling since 8.6.1.
+
+    Enable GHC's cunning generalised deriving mechanism for ``newtype``\s
+
+When you define an abstract type using ``newtype``, you may want the new
+type to inherit some instances from its representation. In Haskell 98,
+you can inherit instances of ``Eq``, ``Ord``, ``Enum`` and ``Bounded``
+by deriving them, but for any other classes you have to write an
+explicit instance declaration. For example, if you define ::
+
+      newtype Dollars = Dollars Int
+
+and you want to use arithmetic on ``Dollars``, you have to explicitly
+define an instance of ``Num``: ::
+
+      instance Num Dollars where
+        Dollars a + Dollars b = Dollars (a+b)
+        ...
+
+All the instance does is apply and remove the ``newtype`` constructor.
+It is particularly galling that, since the constructor doesn't appear at
+run-time, this instance declaration defines a dictionary which is
+*wholly equivalent* to the ``Int`` dictionary, only slower!
+
+:extension:`DerivingVia` (see :ref:`deriving-via`) is a generalization of
+this idea.
+
+.. _generalized-newtype-deriving:
+
+Generalising the deriving clause
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+GHC now permits such instances to be derived instead, using the extension
+:extension:`GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving`, so one can write ::
+
+      newtype Dollars = Dollars { getDollars :: Int } deriving (Eq,Show,Num)
+
+and the implementation uses the *same* ``Num`` dictionary for
+``Dollars`` as for ``Int``. In other words, GHC will generate something that
+resembles the following code ::
+
+      instance Num Int => Num Dollars
+
+and then attempt to simplify the ``Num Int`` context as much as possible.
+GHC knows that there is a ``Num Int`` instance in scope, so it is able to
+discharge the ``Num Int`` constraint, leaving the code that GHC actually
+generates ::
+
+      instance Num Dollars
+
+One can think of this instance being implemented with the same code as the
+``Num Int`` instance, but with ``Dollars`` and ``getDollars`` added wherever
+necessary in order to make it typecheck. (In practice, GHC uses a somewhat
+different approach to code generation. See the :ref:`precise-gnd-specification`
+section below for more details.)
+
+We can also derive instances of constructor classes in a similar way.
+For example, suppose we have implemented state and failure monad
+transformers, such that ::
+
+      instance Monad m => Monad (State s m)
+      instance Monad m => Monad (Failure m)
+
+In Haskell 98, we can define a parsing monad by ::
+
+      type Parser tok m a = State [tok] (Failure m) a
+
+which is automatically a monad thanks to the instance declarations
+above. With the extension, we can make the parser type abstract, without
+needing to write an instance of class ``Monad``, via ::
+
+      newtype Parser tok m a = Parser (State [tok] (Failure m) a)
+                             deriving Monad
+
+In this case the derived instance declaration is of the form ::
+
+      instance Monad (State [tok] (Failure m)) => Monad (Parser tok m)
+
+Notice that, since ``Monad`` is a constructor class, the instance is a
+*partial application* of the newtype, not the entire left hand side. We
+can imagine that the type declaration is "eta-converted" to generate the
+context of the instance declaration.
+
+We can even derive instances of multi-parameter classes, provided the
+newtype is the last class parameter. In this case, a "partial
+application" of the class appears in the ``deriving`` clause. For
+example, given the class ::
+
+      class StateMonad s m | m -> s where ...
+      instance Monad m => StateMonad s (State s m) where ...
+
+then we can derive an instance of ``StateMonad`` for ``Parser`` by ::
+
+      newtype Parser tok m a = Parser (State [tok] (Failure m) a)
+                             deriving (Monad, StateMonad [tok])
+
+The derived instance is obtained by completing the application of the
+class to the new type: ::
+
+      instance StateMonad [tok] (State [tok] (Failure m)) =>
+               StateMonad [tok] (Parser tok m)
+
+As a result of this extension, all derived instances in newtype
+declarations are treated uniformly (and implemented just by reusing the
+dictionary for the representation type), *except* ``Show`` and ``Read``,
+which really behave differently for the newtype and its representation.
+
+.. note::
+
+    It is sometimes necessary to enable additional language extensions when
+    deriving instances via :extension:`GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving`. For instance,
+    consider a simple class and instance using :extension:`UnboxedTuples`
+    syntax: ::
+
+        {-# LANGUAGE UnboxedTuples #-}
+
+        module Lib where
+
+        class AClass a where
+          aMethod :: a -> (# Int, a #)
+
+        instance AClass Int where
+          aMethod x = (# x, x #)
+
+    The following will fail with an "Illegal unboxed tuple" error, since the
+    derived instance produced by the compiler makes use of unboxed tuple syntax,
+    ::
+
+        {-# LANGUAGE GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving #-}
+
+        import Lib
+
+        newtype Int' = Int' Int
+                     deriving (AClass)
+
+    However, enabling the :extension:`UnboxedTuples` extension allows the module
+    to compile. Similar errors may occur with a variety of extensions,
+    including:
+
+      * :extension:`UnboxedTuples`
+      * :extension:`PolyKinds`
+      * :extension:`MultiParamTypeClasses`
+      * :extension:`FlexibleContexts`
+
+.. _precise-gnd-specification:
+
+A more precise specification
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+A derived instance is derived only for declarations of these forms
+(after expansion of any type synonyms) ::
+
+      newtype T v1..vn                   = MkT (t vk+1..vn) deriving (C t1..tj)
+      newtype instance T s1..sk vk+1..vn = MkT (t vk+1..vn) deriving (C t1..tj)
+
+where
+
+-  ``v1..vn`` are type variables, and ``t``, ``s1..sk``, ``t1..tj`` are
+   types.
+
+-  The ``(C t1..tj)`` is a partial applications of the class ``C``,
+   where the arity of ``C`` is exactly ``j+1``. That is, ``C`` lacks
+   exactly one type argument.
+
+-  ``k`` is chosen so that ``C t1..tj (T v1...vk)`` is well-kinded. (Or,
+   in the case of a ``data instance``, so that ``C t1..tj (T s1..sk)``
+   is well kinded.)
+
+-  The type ``t`` is an arbitrary type.
+
+-  The type variables ``vk+1...vn`` do not occur in the types ``t``,
+   ``s1..sk``, or ``t1..tj``.
+
+-  ``C`` is not ``Read``, ``Show``, ``Typeable``, or ``Data``. These
+   classes should not "look through" the type or its constructor. You
+   can still derive these classes for a newtype, but it happens in the
+   usual way, not via this new mechanism. Confer with
+   :ref:`default-deriving-strategy`.
+
+-  It is safe to coerce each of the methods of ``C``. That is, the
+   missing last argument to ``C`` is not used at a nominal role in any
+   of the ``C``'s methods. (See :ref:`roles`.)
+
+- ``C`` is allowed to have associated type families, provided they meet the
+  requirements laid out in the section on :ref:`GND and associated types
+  <gnd-and-associated-types>`.
+
+Then the derived instance declaration is of the form ::
+
+      instance C t1..tj t => C t1..tj (T v1...vk)
+
+Note that if ``C`` does not contain any class methods, the instance context
+is wholly unnecessary, and as such GHC will instead generate: ::
+
+      instance C t1..tj (T v1..vk)
+
+As an example which does *not* work, consider ::
+
+      newtype NonMonad m s = NonMonad (State s m s) deriving Monad
+
+Here we cannot derive the instance ::
+
+      instance Monad (State s m) => Monad (NonMonad m)
+
+because the type variable ``s`` occurs in ``State s m``, and so cannot
+be "eta-converted" away. It is a good thing that this ``deriving``
+clause is rejected, because ``NonMonad m`` is not, in fact, a monad ---
+for the same reason. Try defining ``>>=`` with the correct type: you
+won't be able to.
+
+Notice also that the *order* of class parameters becomes important,
+since we can only derive instances for the last one. If the
+``StateMonad`` class above were instead defined as ::
+
+      class StateMonad m s | m -> s where ...
+
+then we would not have been able to derive an instance for the
+``Parser`` type above. We hypothesise that multi-parameter classes
+usually have one "main" parameter for which deriving new instances is
+most interesting.
+
+Lastly, all of this applies only for classes other than ``Read``,
+``Show``, ``Typeable``, and ``Data``, for which the stock derivation
+applies (section 4.3.3. of the Haskell Report). (For the standard
+classes ``Eq``, ``Ord``, ``Ix``, and ``Bounded`` it is immaterial
+whether the stock method is used or the one described here.)
+
+.. _gnd-and-associated-types:
+
+Associated type families
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+:extension:`GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving` also works for some type classes with
+associated type families. Here is an example: ::
+
+      class HasRing a where
+        type Ring a
+
+      newtype L1Norm a = L1Norm a
+        deriving HasRing
+
+The derived ``HasRing`` instance would look like ::
+
+      instance HasRing (L1Norm a) where
+        type Ring (L1Norm a) = Ring a
+
+To be precise, if the class being derived is of the form ::
+
+      class C c_1 c_2 ... c_m where
+        type T1 t1_1 t1_2 ... t1_n
+        ...
+        type Tk tk_1 tk_2 ... tk_p
+
+and the newtype is of the form ::
+
+      newtype N n_1 n_2 ... n_q = MkN <rep-type>
+
+then you can derive a ``C c_1 c_2 ... c_(m-1)`` instance for
+``N n_1 n_2 ... n_q``, provided that:
+
+- The type parameter ``c_m`` occurs once in each of the type variables of
+  ``T1`` through ``Tk``. Imagine a class where this condition didn't hold.
+  For example: ::
+
+      class Bad a b where
+        type B a
+
+      instance Bad Int a where
+        type B Int = Char
+
+      newtype Foo a = Foo a
+        deriving (Bad Int)
+
+  For the derived ``Bad Int`` instance, GHC would need to generate something
+  like this: ::
+
+      instance Bad Int (Foo a) where
+        type B Int = B ???
+
+  Now we're stuck, since we have no way to refer to ``a`` on the right-hand
+  side of the ``B`` family instance, so this instance doesn't really make sense
+  in a :extension:`GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving` setting.
+
+- ``C`` does not have any associated data families (only type families). To
+  see why data families are forbidden, imagine the following scenario: ::
+
+      class Ex a where
+        data D a
+
+      instance Ex Int where
+        data D Int = DInt Bool
+
+      newtype Age = MkAge Int deriving Ex
+
+  For the derived ``Ex`` instance, GHC would need to generate something like
+  this: ::
+
+      instance Ex Age where
+        data D Age = ???
+
+  But it is not clear what GHC would fill in for ``???``, as each data family
+  instance must generate fresh data constructors.
+
+If both of these conditions are met, GHC will generate this instance: ::
+
+      instance C c_1 c_2 ... c_(m-1) <rep-type> =>
+               C c_1 c_2 ... c_(m-1) (N n_1 n_2 ... n_q) where
+        type T1 t1_1 t1_2 ... (N n_1 n_2 ... n_q) ... t1_n
+           = T1 t1_1 t1_2 ... <rep-type>          ... t1_n
+        ...
+        type Tk tk_1 tk_2 ... (N n_1 n_2 ... n_q) ... tk_p
+           = Tk tk_1 tk_2 ... <rep-type>          ... tk_p
+
+Again, if ``C`` contains no class methods, the instance context will be
+redundant, so GHC will instead generate
+``instance C c_1 c_2 ... c_(m-1) (N n_1 n_2 ... n_q)``.
+
+Beware that in some cases, you may need to enable the
+:extension:`UndecidableInstances` extension in order to use this feature.
+Here's a pathological case that illustrates why this might happen: ::
+
+      class C a where
+        type T a
+
+      newtype Loop = MkLoop Loop
+        deriving C
+
+This will generate the derived instance: ::
+
+      instance C Loop where
+        type T Loop = T Loop
+
+Here, it is evident that attempting to use the type ``T Loop`` will throw the
+typechecker into an infinite loop, as its definition recurses endlessly. In
+other cases, you might need to enable :extension:`UndecidableInstances` even
+if the generated code won't put the typechecker into a loop. For example: ::
+
+      instance C Int where
+        type C Int = Int
+
+      newtype MyInt = MyInt Int
+        deriving C
+
+This will generate the derived instance: ::
+
+      instance C MyInt where
+        type T MyInt = T Int
+
+Although typechecking ``T MyInt`` will terminate, GHC's termination checker
+isn't sophisticated enough to determine this, so you'll need to enable
+:extension:`UndecidableInstances` in order to use this derived instance. If
+you do go down this route, make sure you can convince yourself that all of
+the type family instances you're deriving will eventually terminate if used!
+
+Note that :extension:`DerivingVia` (see :ref:`deriving-via`) uses essentially
+the same specification to derive instances of associated type families as well
+(except that it uses the ``via`` type instead of the underlying ``rep-type``
+of a newtype).
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/nk_patterns.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/nk_patterns.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..47d0630
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/nk_patterns.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+.. _n-k-patterns:
+
+n+k patterns
+------------
+
+.. extension:: NPlusKPatterns
+    :shortdesc: Enable support for ``n+k`` patterns.
+        Implied by :extension:`Haskell98`.
+
+    :implied by: :extension:`Haskell98`
+    :since: 6.12.1
+
+    Enable use of ``n+k`` patterns.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/nullary_type_classes.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/nullary_type_classes.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8477f99
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/nullary_type_classes.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+.. _nullary-type-classes:
+
+Nullary type classes
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. extension:: NullaryTypeClasses
+    :shortdesc: Deprecated, does nothing. nullary (no parameter) type
+        classes are now enabled using :extension:`MultiParamTypeClasses`.
+
+    :since: 7.8.1
+
+    Allows the use definition of type classes with no parameters. This extension
+    has been replaced by :extension:`MultiParamTypeClasses`.
+
+
+Nullary (no parameter) type classes are enabled with
+:extension:`MultiParamTypeClasses`; historically, they were enabled with the
+(now deprecated) :extension:`NullaryTypeClasses`. Since there are no available
+parameters, there can be at most one instance of a nullary class. A nullary type
+class might be used to document some assumption in a type signature (such as
+reliance on the Riemann hypothesis) or add some globally configurable settings
+in a program. For example, ::
+
+      class RiemannHypothesis where
+        assumeRH :: a -> a
+
+      -- Deterministic version of the Miller test
+      -- correctness depends on the generalised Riemann hypothesis
+      isPrime :: RiemannHypothesis => Integer -> Bool
+      isPrime n = assumeRH (...)
+
+The type signature of ``isPrime`` informs users that its correctness depends on
+an unproven conjecture. If the function is used, the user has to acknowledge the
+dependence with: ::
+
+      instance RiemannHypothesis where
+        assumeRH = id
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/nullary_types.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/nullary_types.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1128fae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/nullary_types.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+.. _nullary-types:
+
+Data types with no constructors
+-------------------------------
+
+.. extension:: EmptyDataDecls
+    :shortdesc: Allow definition of empty ``data`` types.
+
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Allow definition of empty ``data`` types.
+
+With the :extension:`EmptyDataDecls` extension, GHC lets you declare a
+data type with no constructors.
+
+You only need to enable this extension if the language you're using
+is Haskell 98, in which a data type must have at least one constructor.
+Haskell 2010 relaxed this rule to allow data types with no constructors,
+and thus :extension:`EmptyDataDecls` is enabled by default when the
+language is Haskell 2010.
+
+For example: ::
+
+      data S      -- S :: Type
+      data T a    -- T :: Type -> Type
+
+Syntactically, the declaration lacks the "= constrs" part. The type can be
+parameterised over types of any kind, but if the kind is not ``Type`` then an
+explicit kind annotation must be used (see :ref:`kinding`).
+
+Such data types have only one value, namely bottom. Nevertheless, they
+can be useful when defining "phantom types".
+
+In conjunction with the :extension:`EmptyDataDeriving` extension, empty data
+declarations can also derive instances of standard type classes
+(see :ref:`empty-data-deriving`).
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/num_decimals.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/num_decimals.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d606599
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/num_decimals.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+.. _num-decimals:
+
+Fractional looking integer literals
+-----------------------------------
+
+.. extension:: NumDecimals
+    :shortdesc: Enable support for 'fractional' integer literals.
+
+    :since: 7.8.1
+
+    Allow the use of floating-point literal syntax for integral types.
+
+Haskell 2010 and Haskell 98 define floating literals with the syntax
+``1.2e6``. These literals have the type ``Fractional a => a``.
+
+The language extension :extension:`NumDecimals` allows you to also use the
+floating literal syntax for instances of ``Integral``, and have values
+like ``(1.2e6 :: Num a => a)``
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/numeric_underscores.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/numeric_underscores.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d430fcd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/numeric_underscores.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,89 @@
+.. _numeric-underscores:
+
+Numeric underscores
+-------------------
+
+.. extension:: NumericUnderscores
+    :shortdesc: Enable support for :ref:`numeric underscores <numeric-underscores>`.
+
+    :since: 8.6.1
+
+    Allow the use of underscores in numeric literals.
+
+GHC allows for numeric literals to be given in decimal, octal, hexadecimal,
+binary, or float notation.
+
+The language extension :extension:`NumericUnderscores` adds support for expressing
+underscores in numeric literals.
+For instance, the numeric literal ``1_000_000`` will be parsed into
+``1000000`` when :extension:`NumericUnderscores` is enabled.
+That is, underscores in numeric literals are ignored when
+:extension:`NumericUnderscores` is enabled.
+See also :ghc-ticket:`14473`.
+
+For example:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    -- decimal
+    million    = 1_000_000
+    billion    = 1_000_000_000
+    lightspeed = 299_792_458
+    version    = 8_04_1
+    date       = 2017_12_31
+
+    -- hexadecimal
+    red_mask = 0xff_00_00
+    size1G   = 0x3fff_ffff
+
+    -- binary
+    bit8th   = 0b01_0000_0000
+    packbits = 0b1_11_01_0000_0_111
+    bigbits  = 0b1100_1011__1110_1111__0101_0011
+
+    -- float
+    pi       = 3.141_592_653_589_793
+    faraday  = 96_485.332_89
+    avogadro = 6.022_140_857e+23
+
+    -- function
+    isUnderMillion = (< 1_000_000)
+
+    clip64M x
+        | x > 0x3ff_ffff = 0x3ff_ffff
+        | otherwise = x
+
+    test8bit x = (0b01_0000_0000 .&. x) /= 0
+
+About validity:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    x0 = 1_000_000   -- valid
+    x1 = 1__000000   -- valid
+    x2 = 1000000_    -- invalid
+    x3 = _1000000    -- invalid
+
+    e0 = 0.0001      -- valid
+    e1 = 0.000_1     -- valid
+    e2 = 0_.0001     -- invalid
+    e3 = _0.0001     -- invalid
+    e4 = 0._0001     -- invalid
+    e5 = 0.0001_     -- invalid
+
+    f0 = 1e+23       -- valid
+    f1 = 1_e+23      -- valid
+    f2 = 1__e+23     -- valid
+    f3 = 1e_+23      -- invalid
+
+    g0 = 1e+23       -- valid
+    g1 = 1e+_23      -- invalid
+    g2 = 1e+23_      -- invalid
+
+    h0 = 0xffff      -- valid
+    h1 = 0xff_ff     -- valid
+    h2 = 0x_ffff     -- valid
+    h3 = 0x__ffff    -- valid
+    h4 = _0xffff     -- invalid
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/overloaded_labels.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/overloaded_labels.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..34a1ad7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/overloaded_labels.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,94 @@
+.. _overloaded-labels:
+
+Overloaded labels
+-----------------
+
+.. extension:: OverloadedLabels
+    :shortdesc: Enable overloaded labels.
+
+    :since: 8.0.1
+
+    Enable use of the ``#foo`` overloaded label syntax.
+
+GHC supports *overloaded labels*, a form of identifier whose interpretation may
+depend both on its type and on its literal text.  When the
+:extension:`OverloadedLabels` extension is enabled, an overloaded label can be written
+with a prefix hash, for example ``#foo``.  The type of this expression is
+``IsLabel "foo" a => a``.
+
+The class ``IsLabel`` is defined as:
+
+::
+
+    class IsLabel (x :: Symbol) a where
+      fromLabel :: a
+
+This is rather similar to the class ``IsString`` (see
+:ref:`overloaded-strings`), but with an additional type parameter that makes the
+text of the label available as a type-level string (see
+:ref:`type-level-literals`).  Note that ``fromLabel`` had an extra ``Proxy# x``
+argument in GHC 8.0, but this was removed in GHC 8.2 as a type application (see
+:ref:`visible-type-application`) can be used instead.
+
+There are no predefined instances of this class.  It is not in scope by default,
+but can be brought into scope by importing
+:base-ref:`GHC.OverloadedLabels.`.  Unlike
+``IsString``, there are no special defaulting rules for ``IsLabel``.
+
+During typechecking, GHC will replace an occurrence of an overloaded label like
+``#foo`` with ``fromLabel @"foo"``.  This will have some type ``alpha`` and
+require the solution of a class constraint ``IsLabel "foo" alpha``.
+
+The intention is for ``IsLabel`` to be used to support overloaded record fields
+and perhaps anonymous records.  Thus, it may be given instances for base
+datatypes (in particular ``(->)``) in the future.
+
+If :extension:`RebindableSyntax` is enabled, overloaded
+labels will be desugared using whatever ``fromLabel`` function is in scope,
+rather than always using ``GHC.OverloadedLabels.fromLabel``.
+
+When writing an overloaded label, there must be no space between the hash sign
+and the following identifier.  The :extension:`MagicHash` extension makes use
+of postfix hash signs; if :extension:`OverloadedLabels` and
+:extension:`MagicHash` are both enabled then ``x#y`` means ``x# y``, but if
+only :extension:`OverloadedLabels` is enabled then it means ``x #y``.  The
+:extension:`UnboxedTuples` extension makes ``(#`` a single lexeme, so when
+:extension:`UnboxedTuples` is enabled you must write a space between an opening
+parenthesis and an overloaded label.  To avoid confusion, you are strongly
+encouraged to put a space before the hash when using
+:extension:`OverloadedLabels`.
+
+When using :extension:`OverloadedLabels` (or other extensions that make use of
+hash signs) in a ``.hsc`` file (see :ref:`hsc2hs`), the hash signs must be
+doubled (write ``##foo`` instead of ``#foo``) to avoid them being treated as
+``hsc2hs`` directives.
+
+Here is an extension of the record access example in :ref:`type-level-literals`
+showing how an overloaded label can be used as a record selector:
+
+::
+
+    {-# LANGUAGE DataKinds, KindSignatures, MultiParamTypeClasses,
+                 FunctionalDependencies, FlexibleInstances,
+                 OverloadedLabels, ScopedTypeVariables #-}
+
+    import GHC.OverloadedLabels (IsLabel(..))
+    import GHC.TypeLits (Symbol)
+
+    data Label (l :: Symbol) = Get
+
+    class Has a l b | a l -> b where
+      from :: a -> Label l -> b
+
+    data Point = Point Int Int deriving Show
+
+    instance Has Point "x" Int where from (Point x _) _ = x
+    instance Has Point "y" Int where from (Point _ y) _ = y
+
+    instance Has a l b => IsLabel l (a -> b) where
+      fromLabel x = from x (Get :: Label l)
+
+    example = #x (Point 1 2)
+
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/overloaded_lists.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/overloaded_lists.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..449e85f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/overloaded_lists.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,171 @@
+.. _overloaded-lists:
+
+Overloaded lists
+----------------
+
+.. extension:: OverloadedLists
+    :shortdesc: Enable overloaded lists.
+
+    :since: 7.8.1
+
+    Enable overloaded list syntax (e.g. desugaring of lists via the
+    ``IsList`` class).
+
+GHC supports *overloading of the list notation*. Let us recap the
+notation for constructing lists. In Haskell, the list notation can be
+used in the following seven ways:
+
+::
+
+    []          -- Empty list
+    [x]         -- x : []
+    [x,y,z]     -- x : y : z : []
+    [x .. ]     -- enumFrom x
+    [x,y ..]    -- enumFromThen x y
+    [x .. y]    -- enumFromTo x y
+    [x,y .. z]  -- enumFromThenTo x y z
+
+When the ``OverloadedLists`` extension is turned on, the aforementioned
+seven notations are desugared as follows:
+
+::
+
+    []          -- fromListN 0 []
+    [x]         -- fromListN 1 (x : [])
+    [x,y,z]     -- fromListN 3 (x : y : z : [])
+    [x .. ]     -- fromList (enumFrom x)
+    [x,y ..]    -- fromList (enumFromThen x y)
+    [x .. y]    -- fromList (enumFromTo x y)
+    [x,y .. z]  -- fromList (enumFromThenTo x y z)
+
+This extension allows programmers to use the list notation for
+construction of structures like: ``Set``, ``Map``, ``IntMap``,
+``Vector``, ``Text`` and ``Array``. The following code listing gives a
+few examples:
+
+::
+
+    ['0' .. '9']             :: Set Char
+    [1 .. 10]                :: Vector Int
+    [("default",0), (k1,v1)] :: Map String Int
+    ['a' .. 'z']             :: Text
+
+List patterns are also overloaded. When the ``OverloadedLists``
+extension is turned on, these definitions are desugared as follows
+
+::
+
+    f [] = ...          -- f (toList -> []) = ...
+    g [x,y,z] = ...     -- g (toList -> [x,y,z]) = ...
+
+(Here we are using view-pattern syntax for the translation, see
+:ref:`view-patterns`.)
+
+The ``IsList`` class
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+In the above desugarings, the functions ``toList``, ``fromList`` and
+``fromListN`` are all methods of the ``IsList`` class, which is itself
+exported from the ``GHC.Exts`` module. The type class is defined as
+follows:
+
+::
+
+    class IsList l where
+      type Item l
+
+      fromList :: [Item l] -> l
+      toList   :: l -> [Item l]
+
+      fromListN :: Int -> [Item l] -> l
+      fromListN _ = fromList
+
+The ``IsList`` class and its methods are intended to be used in
+conjunction with the ``OverloadedLists`` extension.
+
+-  The type function ``Item`` returns the type of items of the structure
+   ``l``.
+
+-  The function ``fromList`` constructs the structure ``l`` from the
+   given list of ``Item l``.
+
+-  The function ``fromListN`` takes the input list's length as a hint.
+   Its behaviour should be equivalent to ``fromList``. The hint can be
+   used for more efficient construction of the structure ``l`` compared
+   to ``fromList``. If the given hint is not equal to the input list's
+   length the behaviour of ``fromListN`` is not specified.
+
+-  The function ``toList`` should be the inverse of ``fromList``.
+
+It is perfectly fine to declare new instances of ``IsList``, so that
+list notation becomes useful for completely new data types. Here are
+several example instances:
+
+::
+
+    instance IsList [a] where
+      type Item [a] = a
+      fromList = id
+      toList = id
+
+    instance (Ord a) => IsList (Set a) where
+      type Item (Set a) = a
+      fromList = Set.fromList
+      toList = Set.toList
+
+    instance (Ord k) => IsList (Map k v) where
+      type Item (Map k v) = (k,v)
+      fromList = Map.fromList
+      toList = Map.toList
+
+    instance IsList (IntMap v) where
+      type Item (IntMap v) = (Int,v)
+      fromList = IntMap.fromList
+      toList = IntMap.toList
+
+    instance IsList Text where
+      type Item Text = Char
+      fromList = Text.pack
+      toList = Text.unpack
+
+    instance IsList (Vector a) where
+      type Item (Vector a) = a
+      fromList  = Vector.fromList
+      fromListN = Vector.fromListN
+      toList = Vector.toList
+
+Rebindable syntax
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+When desugaring list notation with :extension:`OverloadedLists` GHC uses the
+``fromList`` (etc) methods from module ``GHC.Exts``. You do not need to
+import ``GHC.Exts`` for this to happen.
+
+However if you use :extension:`RebindableSyntax`, then GHC instead uses
+whatever is in scope with the names of ``toList``, ``fromList`` and
+``fromListN``. That is, these functions are rebindable; c.f.
+:ref:`rebindable-syntax`.
+
+Defaulting
+~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Currently, the ``IsList`` class is not accompanied with defaulting
+rules. Although feasible, not much thought has gone into how to specify
+the meaning of the default declarations like: ::
+
+    default ([a])
+
+Speculation about the future
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The current implementation of the ``OverloadedLists`` extension can be
+improved by handling the lists that are only populated with literals in
+a special way. More specifically, the compiler could allocate such lists
+statically using a compact representation and allow ``IsList`` instances
+to take advantage of the compact representation. Equipped with this
+capability the ``OverloadedLists`` extension will be in a good position
+to subsume the ``OverloadedStrings`` extension (currently, as a special
+case, string literals benefit from statically allocated compact
+representation).
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/overloaded_strings.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/overloaded_strings.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9c12e81
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/overloaded_strings.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,84 @@
+.. _overloaded-strings:
+
+Overloaded string literals
+--------------------------
+
+.. extension:: OverloadedStrings
+    :shortdesc: Enable overloaded string literals.
+
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Enable overloaded string literals (e.g. string literals desugared via the
+    ``IsString`` class).
+
+GHC supports *overloaded string literals*. Normally a string literal has
+type ``String``, but with overloaded string literals enabled (with
+:extension:`OverloadedStrings`) a string literal has type
+``(IsString a) => a``.
+
+This means that the usual string syntax can be used, e.g., for
+``ByteString``, ``Text``, and other variations of string like types.
+String literals behave very much like integer literals, i.e., they can
+be used in both expressions and patterns. If used in a pattern the
+literal will be replaced by an equality test, in the same way as an
+integer literal is.
+
+The class ``IsString`` is defined as: ::
+
+    class IsString a where
+        fromString :: String -> a
+
+The only predefined instance is the obvious one to make strings work as
+usual: ::
+
+    instance IsString [Char] where
+        fromString cs = cs
+
+The class ``IsString`` is not in scope by default. If you want to
+mention it explicitly (for example, to give an instance declaration for
+it), you can import it from module ``Data.String``.
+
+Haskell's defaulting mechanism (`Haskell Report, Section
+4.3.4 <http://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/decls.html#sect4.3.4>`__) is
+extended to cover string literals, when :extension:`OverloadedStrings` is
+specified. Specifically:
+
+-  Each type in a ``default`` declaration must be an instance of ``Num``
+   *or* of ``IsString``.
+
+-  If no ``default`` declaration is given, then it is just as if the
+   module contained the declaration
+   ``default( Integer, Double, String)``.
+
+-  The standard defaulting rule is extended thus: defaulting applies
+   when all the unresolved constraints involve standard classes *or*
+   ``IsString``; and at least one is a numeric class *or* ``IsString``.
+
+So, for example, the expression ``length "foo"`` will give rise to an
+ambiguous use of ``IsString a0`` which, because of the above rules, will
+default to ``String``.
+
+A small example:
+
+::
+
+    module Main where
+
+    import Data.String( IsString(..) )
+
+    newtype MyString = MyString String deriving (Eq, Show)
+    instance IsString MyString where
+        fromString = MyString
+
+    greet :: MyString -> MyString
+    greet "hello" = "world"
+    greet other = other
+
+    main = do
+        print $ greet "hello"
+        print $ greet "fool"
+
+Note that deriving ``Eq`` is necessary for the pattern matching to work
+since it gets translated into an equality comparison.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/package_qualified_imports.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/package_qualified_imports.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d0e6323
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/package_qualified_imports.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+.. _package-qualified-imports:
+
+Package-qualified imports
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. extension:: PackageImports
+    :shortdesc: Enable package-qualified imports.
+
+    :since: 6.10.1
+
+    Allow the use of package-qualified ``import`` syntax.
+
+With the :extension:`PackageImports` extension, GHC allows import declarations to be
+qualified by the package name that the module is intended to be imported
+from. For example: ::
+
+    import "network" Network.Socket
+
+would import the module ``Network.Socket`` from the package ``network``
+(any version). This may be used to disambiguate an import when the same
+module is available from multiple packages, or is present in both the
+current package being built and an external package.
+
+The special package name ``this`` can be used to refer to the current
+package being built.
+
+.. note::
+   You probably don't need to use this feature, it was added mainly so that we
+   can build backwards-compatible versions of packages when APIs change. It can
+   lead to fragile dependencies in the common case: modules occasionally move
+   from one package to another, rendering any package-qualified imports broken.
+   See also :ref:`package-thinning-and-renaming` for an alternative way of
+   disambiguating between module names.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/parallel.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/parallel.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c8348db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/parallel.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+.. _lang-parallel:
+
+Parallel and Concurrent
+=======================
+
+.. index::
+   single: parallelism
+   single: concurrency
+
+GHC implements some major extensions to Haskell to support concurrent
+and parallel programming. Let us first establish terminology:
+
+-  *Parallelism* means running a Haskell program on multiple processors,
+   with the goal of improving performance. Ideally, this should be done
+   invisibly, and with no semantic changes.
+
+-  *Concurrency* means implementing a program by using multiple
+   I/O-performing threads. While a concurrent Haskell program *can* run
+   on a parallel machine, the primary goal of using concurrency is not
+   to gain performance, but rather because that is the simplest and most
+   direct way to write the program. Since the threads perform I/O, the
+   semantics of the program is necessarily non-deterministic.
+
+GHC supports both concurrency and parallelism.
+
+.. toctree::
+    :maxdepth: 1
+
+    concurrent
+    stm
+    static_pointers
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/parallel_list_comprehensions.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/parallel_list_comprehensions.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4b6031d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/parallel_list_comprehensions.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+.. _parallel-list-comprehensions:
+
+Parallel List Comprehensions
+----------------------------
+
+.. index::
+   single: list comprehensions; parallel
+   single: parallel list comprehensions
+
+.. extension:: ParallelListComp
+    :shortdesc: Enable parallel list comprehensions.
+
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Allow parallel list comprehension syntax.
+
+Parallel list comprehensions are a natural extension to list
+comprehensions. List comprehensions can be thought of as a nice syntax
+for writing maps and filters. Parallel comprehensions extend this to
+include the ``zipWith`` family.
+
+A parallel list comprehension has multiple independent branches of
+qualifier lists, each separated by a ``|`` symbol. For example, the
+following zips together two lists: ::
+
+       [ (x, y) | x <- xs | y <- ys ]
+
+The behaviour of parallel list comprehensions follows that of zip, in
+that the resulting list will have the same length as the shortest
+branch.
+
+We can define parallel list comprehensions by translation to regular
+comprehensions. Here's the basic idea:
+
+Given a parallel comprehension of the form: ::
+
+       [ e | p1 <- e11, p2 <- e12, ...
+           | q1 <- e21, q2 <- e22, ...
+           ...
+       ]
+
+This will be translated to: ::
+
+       [ e | ((p1,p2), (q1,q2), ...) <- zipN [(p1,p2) | p1 <- e11, p2 <- e12, ...]
+                                             [(q1,q2) | q1 <- e21, q2 <- e22, ...]
+                                             ...
+       ]
+
+where ``zipN`` is the appropriate zip for the given number of branches.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/partial_type_signatures.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/partial_type_signatures.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..20689d9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/partial_type_signatures.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,342 @@
+.. _partial-type-signatures:
+
+Partial Type Signatures
+=======================
+
+.. extension:: PartialTypeSignatures
+    :shortdesc: Enable partial type signatures.
+
+    :since: 7.10.1
+
+    Type checker will allow inferred types for holes.
+
+A partial type signature is a type signature containing special
+placeholders called *wildcards*. A wildcard is written as an underscore (e.g. "``_``")
+or, if :extension:`NamedWildCards` is enabled, any identifier with a leading
+underscore (e.g. "``_foo``", "``_bar``"). Partial type signatures are to type
+signatures what :ref:`typed-holes` are to expressions. During compilation these
+wildcards or holes will generate an error message that describes which type was
+inferred at the hole's location, and information about the origin of any free
+type variables. GHC reports such error messages by default.
+
+Unlike :ref:`typed-holes`, which make the program incomplete and will
+generate errors when they are evaluated, this needn't be the case for
+holes in type signatures. The type checker is capable (in most cases) of
+type-checking a binding with or without a type signature. A partial type
+signature bridges the gap between the two extremes, the programmer can
+choose which parts of a type to annotate and which to leave over to the
+type-checker to infer.
+
+By default, the type-checker will report an error message for each hole
+in a partial type signature, informing the programmer of the inferred
+type. When the :extension:`PartialTypeSignatures` extension is enabled, the
+type-checker will accept the inferred type for each hole, generating
+warnings instead of errors. Additionally, these warnings can be silenced
+with the :ghc-flag:`-Wno-partial-type-signatures <-Wpartial-type-signatures>`
+flag.
+
+However, because GHC must *infer* the type when part of a type is left
+out, it is unable to use polymorphic recursion. The same restriction
+takes place when the type signature is omitted completely.
+
+.. _pts-syntax:
+
+Syntax
+------
+
+A (partial) type signature has the following form:
+``forall a b .. . (C1, C2, ..) => tau``. It consists of three parts:
+
+-  The type variables:
+   ``a b ..``
+-  The constraints:
+   ``(C1, C2, ..)``
+-  The (mono)type:
+   ``tau``
+
+We distinguish three kinds of wildcards.
+
+.. _type-wildcards:
+
+Type Wildcards
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Wildcards occurring within the monotype (tau) part of the type signature
+are *type wildcards* ("type" is often omitted as this is the default
+kind of wildcard). Type wildcards can be instantiated to any monotype
+like ``Bool`` or ``Maybe [Bool]``, including functions and higher-kinded
+types like ``(Int -> Bool)`` or ``Maybe``.
+
+::
+
+    not' :: Bool -> _
+    not' x = not x
+    -- Inferred: Bool -> Bool
+
+    maybools :: _
+    maybools = Just [True]
+    -- Inferred: Maybe [Bool]
+
+    just1 :: _ Int
+    just1 = Just 1
+    -- Inferred: Maybe Int
+
+    filterInt :: _ -> _ -> [Int]
+    filterInt = filter -- has type forall a. (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> [a]
+    -- Inferred: (Int -> Bool) -> [Int] -> [Int]
+
+For instance, the first wildcard in the type signature ``not'`` would
+produce the following error message:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    Test.hs:4:17: error:
+        • Found type wildcard ‘_’ standing for ‘Bool’
+          To use the inferred type, enable PartialTypeSignatures
+        • In the type signature:
+            not' :: Bool -> _
+        • Relevant bindings include
+            not' :: Bool -> Bool (bound at Test.hs:5:1)
+
+
+When a wildcard is not instantiated to a monotype, it will be
+generalised over, i.e. replaced by a fresh type variable, e.g.
+
+::
+
+    foo :: _ -> _
+    foo x = x
+    -- Inferred: forall t. t -> t
+
+    filter' :: _
+    filter' = filter -- has type forall a. (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> [a]
+    -- Inferred: (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> [a]
+
+.. _named-wildcards:
+
+Named Wildcards
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. extension:: NamedWildCards
+    :shortdesc: Enable named wildcards.
+
+    :since: 7.10.1
+
+    Allow naming of wildcards (e.g. ``_x``) in type signatures.
+
+Type wildcards can also be named by giving the underscore an identifier
+as suffix, i.e. ``_a``. These are called *named wildcards*. All
+occurrences of the same named wildcard within one type signature will
+unify to the same type. For example: ::
+
+    f :: _x -> _x
+    f ('c', y) = ('d', error "Urk")
+    -- Inferred: forall t. (Char, t) -> (Char, t)
+
+The named wildcard forces the argument and result types to be the same.
+Lacking a signature, GHC would have inferred
+``forall a b. (Char, a) -> (Char, b)``. A named wildcard can be
+mentioned in constraints, provided it also occurs in the monotype part
+of the type signature to make sure that it unifies with something: ::
+
+    somethingShowable :: Show _x => _x -> _
+    somethingShowable x = show x
+    -- Inferred type: Show a => a -> String
+
+    somethingShowable' :: Show _x => _x -> _
+    somethingShowable' x = show (not x)
+    -- Inferred type: Bool -> String
+
+Besides an extra-constraints wildcard (see
+:ref:`extra-constraints-wildcard`), only named wildcards can occur in
+the constraints, e.g. the ``_x`` in ``Show _x``.
+
+Named wildcards *should not be confused with type variables*. Even
+though syntactically similar, named wildcards can unify with monotypes
+as well as be generalised over (and behave as type variables).
+
+In the first example above, ``_x`` is generalised over (and is
+effectively replaced by a fresh type variable ``a``). In the second
+example, ``_x`` is unified with the ``Bool`` type, and as ``Bool``
+implements the ``Show`` type class, the constraint ``Show Bool`` can be
+simplified away.
+
+By default, GHC (as the Haskell 2010 standard prescribes) parses
+identifiers starting with an underscore in a type as type variables. To
+treat them as named wildcards, the :extension:`NamedWildCards` extension should be
+enabled. The example below demonstrated the effect. ::
+
+    foo :: _a -> _a
+    foo _ = False
+
+Compiling this program without enabling :extension:`NamedWildCards` produces
+the following error message complaining about the type variable ``_a``
+no matching the actual type ``Bool``.
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    Test.hs:5:9: error:
+        • Couldn't match expected type ‘_a’ with actual type ‘Bool’
+          ‘_a’ is a rigid type variable bound by
+            the type signature for:
+              foo :: forall _a. _a -> _a
+            at Test.hs:4:8
+        • In the expression: False
+          In an equation for ‘foo’: foo _ = False
+        • Relevant bindings include foo :: _a -> _a (bound at Test.hs:5:1)
+
+Compiling this program with :extension:`NamedWildCards` (as well as
+:extension:`PartialTypeSignatures`) enabled produces the following error
+message reporting the inferred type of the named wildcard ``_a``.
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    Test.hs:4:8: warning: [-Wpartial-type-signatures]
+        • Found type wildcard ‘_a’ standing for ‘Bool’
+        • In the type signature:
+            foo :: _a -> _a
+        • Relevant bindings include
+            foo :: Bool -> Bool (bound at Test.hs:5:1)
+
+
+.. _extra-constraints-wildcard:
+
+Extra-Constraints Wildcard
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The third kind of wildcard is the *extra-constraints wildcard*. The
+presence of an extra-constraints wildcard indicates that an arbitrary
+number of extra constraints may be inferred during type checking and
+will be added to the type signature. In the example below, the
+extra-constraints wildcard is used to infer three extra constraints.
+
+::
+
+    arbitCs :: _ => a -> String
+    arbitCs x = show (succ x) ++ show (x == x)
+    -- Inferred:
+    --   forall a. (Enum a, Eq a, Show a) => a -> String
+    -- Error:
+    Test.hs:5:12: error:
+        Found constraint wildcard ‘_’ standing for ‘(Show a, Eq a, Enum a)’
+        To use the inferred type, enable PartialTypeSignatures
+        In the type signature:
+          arbitCs :: _ => a -> String
+
+An extra-constraints wildcard shouldn't prevent the programmer from
+already listing the constraints he knows or wants to annotate, e.g.
+
+::
+
+    -- Also a correct partial type signature:
+    arbitCs' :: (Enum a, _) => a -> String
+    arbitCs' x = arbitCs x
+    -- Inferred:
+    --   forall a. (Enum a, Show a, Eq a) => a -> String
+    -- Error:
+    Test.hs:9:22: error:
+        Found constraint wildcard ‘_’ standing for ‘()’
+        To use the inferred type, enable PartialTypeSignatures
+        In the type signature:
+          arbitCs' :: (Enum a, _) => a -> String
+
+An extra-constraints wildcard can also lead to zero extra constraints to
+be inferred, e.g.
+
+::
+
+    noCs :: _ => String
+    noCs = "noCs"
+    -- Inferred: String
+    -- Error:
+    Test.hs:13:9: error:
+        Found constraint wildcard ‘_’ standing for ‘()’
+        To use the inferred type, enable PartialTypeSignatures
+        In the type signature:
+          noCs :: _ => String
+
+As a single extra-constraints wildcard is enough to infer any number of
+constraints, only one is allowed in a type signature and it should come
+last in the list of constraints.
+
+Extra-constraints wildcards cannot be named.
+
+.. _pts-where:
+
+Where can they occur?
+---------------------
+
+Partial type signatures are allowed for bindings, pattern and expression
+signatures, except that extra-constraints
+wildcards are not supported in pattern or expression signatures.
+In the following example a wildcard is used in each of the three possible contexts.
+::
+
+    {-# LANGUAGE ScopedTypeVariables #-}
+    foo :: _
+    foo (x :: _) = (x :: _)
+    -- Inferred: forall w_. w_ -> w_
+
+Anonymous and named wildcards *can* occur on the left hand side of a
+type or data instance declaration;
+see :ref:`type-wildcards-lhs`.
+
+Anonymous wildcards are also allowed in visible type applications/ visible kind
+applications (:ref:`visible-type-application`). If you want to specify only the
+second type argument to ``wurble``, then you can say ``wurble @_ @Int`` where
+the first argument is a wildcard.
+
+Standalone ``deriving`` declarations permit the use of a single,
+extra-constraints wildcard, like so: ::
+
+   deriving instance _ => Eq (Foo a)
+
+This denotes a derived ``Eq (Foo a)`` instance where the context is inferred,
+in much the same way that ordinary ``deriving`` clauses do. Any other use of
+wildcards in a standalone ``deriving`` declaration is prohibited.
+
+In all other contexts, type wildcards are disallowed, and a named wildcard is treated
+as an ordinary type variable.  For example: ::
+
+   class C _ where ...          -- Illegal
+   instance Eq (T _)            -- Illegal (currently; would actually make sense)
+   instance Eq _a => Eq (T _a)  -- Perfectly fine, same as  Eq a => Eq (T a)
+
+Partial type signatures can also be used in :ref:`template-haskell`
+splices.
+
+-  Declaration splices: partial type signature are fully supported.
+   ::
+
+       {-# LANGUAGE TemplateHaskell, NamedWildCards #-}
+       $( [d| foo :: _ => _a -> _a -> _
+              foo x y = x == y|] )
+
+-  Expression splices: anonymous and named wildcards can be used in
+   expression signatures. Extra-constraints wildcards are not supported,
+   just like in regular expression signatures.
+   ::
+
+       {-# LANGUAGE TemplateHaskell, NamedWildCards #-}
+       $( [e| foo = (Just True :: _m _) |] )
+
+-  Typed expression splices: the same wildcards as in (untyped)
+   expression splices are supported.
+
+-  Pattern splices: anonymous and named wildcards can be used in pattern
+   signatures. Note that :extension:`ScopedTypeVariables` has to be enabled
+   to allow pattern signatures. Extra-constraints wildcards are not supported,
+   just like in regular pattern signatures.
+   ::
+
+       {-# LANGUAGE TemplateHaskell, ScopedTypeVariables #-}
+       foo $( [p| (x :: _) |] ) = x
+
+-  Type splices: only anonymous wildcards are supported in type splices.
+   Named and extra-constraints wildcards are not. ::
+
+       {-# LANGUAGE TemplateHaskell #-}
+       foo :: $( [t| _ |] ) -> a
+       foo x = x
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/pattern_guards.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/pattern_guards.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..009daba
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/pattern_guards.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+.. _pattern-guards:
+
+Pattern guards
+--------------
+
+.. extension:: NoPatternGuards
+    :shortdesc: Disable pattern guards.
+        Implied by :extension:`Haskell98`.
+
+    :implied by: :extension:`Haskell98`
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+Disable `pattern guards
+<http://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/haskell2010/haskellch3.html#x8-460003.13>`__.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/pattern_synonyms.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/pattern_synonyms.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fbdd50d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/pattern_synonyms.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,521 @@
+.. _pattern-synonyms:
+
+Pattern synonyms
+================
+
+.. extension:: PatternSynonyms
+    :shortdesc: Enable pattern synonyms.
+
+    :since: 7.8.1
+
+    Allow the definition of pattern synonyms.
+
+Pattern synonyms are enabled by the language extension :extension:`PatternSynonyms`, which is
+required for defining them, but *not* for using them. More information and
+examples of pattern synonyms can be found on the :ghc-wiki:`Wiki page <pattern-synonyms>`.
+
+Pattern synonyms enable giving names to parametrized pattern schemes.
+They can also be thought of as abstract constructors that don't have a
+bearing on data representation. For example, in a programming language
+implementation, we might represent types of the language as follows: ::
+
+    data Type = App String [Type]
+
+Here are some examples of using said representation. Consider a few
+types of the ``Type`` universe encoded like this: ::
+
+      App "->" [t1, t2]          -- t1 -> t2
+      App "Int" []               -- Int
+      App "Maybe" [App "Int" []] -- Maybe Int
+
+This representation is very generic in that no types are given special
+treatment. However, some functions might need to handle some known types
+specially, for example the following two functions collect all argument
+types of (nested) arrow types, and recognize the ``Int`` type,
+respectively: ::
+
+      collectArgs :: Type -> [Type]
+      collectArgs (App "->" [t1, t2]) = t1 : collectArgs t2
+      collectArgs _                   = []
+
+      isInt :: Type -> Bool
+      isInt (App "Int" []) = True
+      isInt _              = False
+
+Matching on ``App`` directly is both hard to read and error prone to
+write. And the situation is even worse when the matching is nested: ::
+
+      isIntEndo :: Type -> Bool
+      isIntEndo (App "->" [App "Int" [], App "Int" []]) = True
+      isIntEndo _                                       = False
+
+Pattern synonyms permit abstracting from the representation to expose
+matchers that behave in a constructor-like manner with respect to
+pattern matching. We can create pattern synonyms for the known types we
+care about, without committing the representation to them (note that
+these don't have to be defined in the same module as the ``Type`` type): ::
+
+      pattern Arrow t1 t2 = App "->"    [t1, t2]
+      pattern Int         = App "Int"   []
+      pattern Maybe t     = App "Maybe" [t]
+
+Which enables us to rewrite our functions in a much cleaner style: ::
+
+      collectArgs :: Type -> [Type]
+      collectArgs (Arrow t1 t2) = t1 : collectArgs t2
+      collectArgs _             = []
+
+      isInt :: Type -> Bool
+      isInt Int = True
+      isInt _   = False
+
+      isIntEndo :: Type -> Bool
+      isIntEndo (Arrow Int Int) = True
+      isIntEndo _               = False
+
+In general there are three kinds of pattern synonyms. Unidirectional,
+bidirectional and explicitly bidirectional. The examples given so far are
+examples of bidirectional pattern synonyms. A bidirectional synonym
+behaves the same as an ordinary data constructor. We can use it in a pattern
+context to deconstruct values and in an expression context to construct values.
+For example, we can construct the value `intEndo` using the pattern synonyms
+`Arrow` and `Int` as defined previously. ::
+
+      intEndo :: Type
+      intEndo = Arrow Int Int
+
+This example is equivalent to the much more complicated construction if we had
+directly used the `Type` constructors. ::
+
+      intEndo :: Type
+      intEndo = App "->" [App "Int" [], App "Int" []]
+
+
+Unidirectional synonyms can only be used in a pattern context and are
+defined as follows:
+
+
+::
+
+      pattern Head x <- x:xs
+
+In this case, ``Head`` ⟨x⟩ cannot be used in expressions, only patterns,
+since it wouldn't specify a value for the ⟨xs⟩ on the right-hand side. However,
+we can define an explicitly bidirectional pattern synonym by separately
+specifying how to construct and deconstruct a type. The syntax for
+doing this is as follows:
+
+::
+
+      pattern HeadC x <- x:xs where
+        HeadC x = [x]
+
+We can then use ``HeadC`` in both expression and pattern contexts. In a pattern
+context it will match the head of any list with length at least one. In an
+expression context it will construct a singleton list.
+
+Explicitly bidirectional pattern synonyms offer greater flexibility than
+implicitly bidirectional ones in terms of the syntax that is permitted. For
+instance, the following is not a legal implicitly bidirectional pattern
+synonym: ::
+
+      pattern StrictJust a = Just !a
+
+This is illegal because the use of :extension:`BangPatterns` on the right-hand
+sides prevents it from being a well formed expression. However, constructing a
+strict pattern synonym is quite possible with an explicitly bidirectional
+pattern synonym: ::
+
+      pattern StrictJust a <- Just !a where
+        StrictJust !a = Just a
+
+Constructing an explicitly bidirectional pattern synonym also:
+
+- can create different data constructors from the underlying data type,
+  not just the one appearing in the pattern match;
+
+- can call any functions or conditional logic, especially validation,
+  of course providing it constructs a result of the right type;
+
+- can use guards on the lhs of the ``=``;
+
+- can have multiple equations.
+
+For example: ::
+
+      data PosNeg = Pos Int | Neg Int
+      pattern Smarter{ nonneg } <- Pos nonneg  where
+        Smarter x = if x >= 0 then (Pos x) else (Neg x)
+
+Or using guards: ::
+
+      pattern Smarter{ nonneg } <- Pos nonneg  where
+        Smarter x | x >= 0    = (Pos x)
+                  | otherwise = (Neg x)
+
+There is an extensive Haskell folk art of `smart constructors
+<https://wiki.haskell.org/Smart_constructor>`_,
+essentially functions that wrap validation around a constructor,
+and avoid exposing its representation.
+The downside is that the underlying constructor can't be used as a matcher.
+Pattern synonyms can be used as genuinely smart constructors, for both validation and matching.
+
+The table below summarises where each kind of pattern synonym can be used.
+
++---------------+----------------+---------------+---------------------------+
+| Context       | Unidirectional | Bidirectional | Explicitly Bidirectional  |
++===============+================+===============+===========================+
+| Pattern       | Yes            | Yes           | Yes                       |
++---------------+----------------+---------------+---------------------------+
+| Expression    | No             | Yes (Inferred)| Yes (Explicit)            |
++---------------+----------------+---------------+---------------------------+
+
+.. _record-patsyn:
+
+Record Pattern Synonyms
+-----------------------
+
+It is also possible to define pattern synonyms which behave just like record
+constructors. The syntax for doing this is as follows:
+
+::
+
+      pattern Point :: Int -> Int -> (Int, Int)
+      pattern Point{x, y} = (x, y)
+
+The idea is that we can then use ``Point`` just as if we had defined a new
+datatype ``MyPoint`` with two fields ``x`` and ``y``.
+
+::
+
+    data MyPoint = Point { x :: Int, y :: Int }
+
+Whilst a normal pattern synonym can be used in two ways, there are then seven
+ways in which to use ``Point``. Precisely the ways in which a normal record
+constructor can be used.
+
+=======================================   ==================================
+Usage                                     Example
+=======================================   ==================================
+As a constructor                          ``zero = Point 0 0``
+As a constructor with record syntax       ``zero = Point { x = 0, y = 0}``
+In a pattern context                      ``isZero (Point 0 0) = True``
+In a pattern context with record syntax   ``isZero (Point { x = 0, y = 0 }``
+In a pattern context with field puns      ``getX (Point {x}) = x``
+In a record update                        ``(0, 0) { x = 1 } == (1,0)``
+Using record selectors                    ``x (0,0) == 0``
+=======================================   ==================================
+
+For a unidirectional record pattern synonym we define record selectors but do
+not allow record updates or construction.
+
+The syntax and semantics of pattern synonyms are elaborated in the
+following subsections.
+There are also lots more details in the `paper
+<https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/pattern-synonyms-Haskell16.pdf>`_.
+
+See the :ghc-wiki:`Wiki page <pattern-synonyms>` for more
+details.
+
+Syntax and scoping of pattern synonyms
+--------------------------------------
+
+A pattern synonym declaration can be either unidirectional,
+bidirectional or explicitly bidirectional.
+The syntax for unidirectional pattern synonyms is: ::
+
+      pattern pat_lhs <- pat
+
+the syntax for bidirectional pattern synonyms is: ::
+
+      pattern pat_lhs = pat
+
+and the syntax for explicitly bidirectional pattern synonyms is: ::
+
+      pattern pat_lhs <- pat where
+        pat_lhs = expr                      -- lhs restricted, see below
+
+We can define either prefix, infix or record pattern synonyms by modifying
+the form of `pat_lhs`. The syntax for these is as follows:
+
+======= ============================
+Prefix  ``Name args``
+------- ----------------------------
+Infix   ``arg1 `Name` arg2``
+        or ``arg1 op arg2``
+------- ----------------------------
+Record  ``Name{arg1,arg2,...,argn}``
+======= ============================
+
+The `pat_lhs` for explicitly bidirectional construction cannot use Record syntax.
+(Because the rhs *expr* might be constructing different data constructors.)
+It can use guards with multiple equations.
+
+Pattern synonym declarations can only occur in the top level of a
+module. In particular, they are not allowed as local definitions.
+
+The variables in the left-hand side of the definition are bound by the
+pattern on the right-hand side. For bidirectional pattern
+synonyms, all the variables of the right-hand side must also occur on
+the left-hand side; also, wildcard patterns and view patterns are not
+allowed. For unidirectional and explicitly bidirectional pattern
+synonyms, there is no restriction on the right-hand side pattern.
+
+Pattern synonyms cannot be defined recursively.
+
+:ref:`complete-pragma` can be specified in order to tell
+the pattern match exhaustiveness checker that a set of pattern synonyms is
+complete.
+
+.. _patsyn-impexp:
+
+Import and export of pattern synonyms
+-------------------------------------
+
+The name of the pattern synonym is in the same namespace as proper data
+constructors. Like normal data constructors, pattern synonyms can be imported
+and exported through association with a type constructor or independently.
+
+To export them on their own, in an export or import specification, you must
+prefix pattern names with the ``pattern`` keyword, e.g.: ::
+
+      module Example (pattern Zero) where
+
+      data MyNum = MkNum Int
+
+      pattern Zero :: MyNum
+      pattern Zero = MkNum 0
+
+Without the ``pattern`` prefix, ``Zero`` would be interpreted as a
+type constructor in the export list.
+
+You may also use the ``pattern`` keyword in an import/export
+specification to import or export an ordinary data constructor. For
+example: ::
+
+      import Data.Maybe( pattern Just )
+
+would bring into scope the data constructor ``Just`` from the ``Maybe``
+type, without also bringing the type constructor ``Maybe`` into scope.
+
+To bundle a pattern synonym with a type constructor, we list the pattern
+synonym in the export list of a module which exports the type constructor.
+For example, to bundle ``Zero`` with ``MyNum`` we could write the following: ::
+
+      module Example ( MyNum(Zero) ) where
+
+If a module was then to import ``MyNum`` from ``Example``, it would also import
+the pattern synonym ``Zero``.
+
+It is also possible to use the special token ``..`` in an export list to mean
+all currently bundled constructors. For example, we could write: ::
+
+      module Example ( MyNum(.., Zero) ) where
+
+in which case, ``Example`` would export the type constructor ``MyNum`` with
+the data constructor ``MkNum`` and also the pattern synonym ``Zero``.
+
+Bundled pattern synonyms are type checked to ensure that they are of the same
+type as the type constructor which they are bundled with. A pattern synonym
+``P`` can not be bundled with a type constructor ``T`` if ``P``\'s type is visibly
+incompatible with ``T``.
+
+A module which imports ``MyNum(..)`` from ``Example`` and then re-exports
+``MyNum(..)`` will also export any pattern synonyms bundled with ``MyNum`` in
+``Example``. A more complete specification can be found on the
+:ghc-wiki:`wiki. <pattern-synonyms/associating-synonyms>`
+
+
+.. _patsyn-typing:
+
+Typing of pattern synonyms
+--------------------------
+
+Given a pattern synonym definition of the form ::
+
+      pattern P var1 var2 ... varN <- pat
+
+it is assigned a *pattern type* of the form ::
+
+      pattern P :: CReq => CProv => t1 -> t2 -> ... -> tN -> t
+
+where ⟨CReq⟩ and ⟨CProv⟩ are type contexts, and ⟨t1⟩, ⟨t2⟩, ..., ⟨tN⟩
+and ⟨t⟩ are types. Notice the unusual form of the type, with two
+contexts ⟨CReq⟩ and ⟨CProv⟩:
+
+-  ⟨CReq⟩ are the constraints *required* to match the pattern.
+
+-  ⟨CProv⟩ are the constraints *made available (provided)* by a
+   successful pattern match.
+
+For example, consider ::
+
+    data T a where
+      MkT :: (Show b) => a -> b -> T a
+
+    f1 :: (Num a, Eq a) => T a -> String
+    f1 (MkT 42 x) = show x
+
+    pattern ExNumPat :: (Num a, Eq a) => (Show b) => b -> T a
+    pattern ExNumPat x = MkT 42 x
+
+    f2 :: (Eq a, Num a) => T a -> String
+    f2 (ExNumPat x) = show x
+
+Here ``f1`` does not use pattern synonyms. To match against the numeric
+pattern ``42`` *requires* the caller to satisfy the constraints
+``(Num a, Eq a)``, so they appear in ``f1``'s type. The call to ``show``
+generates a ``(Show b)`` constraint, where ``b`` is an existentially
+type variable bound by the pattern match on ``MkT``. But the same
+pattern match also *provides* the constraint ``(Show b)`` (see ``MkT``'s
+type), and so all is well.
+
+Exactly the same reasoning applies to ``ExNumPat``: matching against
+``ExNumPat`` *requires* the constraints ``(Num a, Eq a)``, and
+*provides* the constraint ``(Show b)``.
+
+Note also the following points
+
+-  In the common case where ``CProv`` is empty, (i.e., ``()``), it can be
+   omitted altogether in the above pattern type signature for ``P``.
+
+-  However, if ``CProv`` is non-empty, while ``CReq`` is, the above pattern type
+   signature for ``P`` must be specified as ::
+
+     P :: () => CProv => t1 -> t2 -> .. -> tN -> t
+
+-  The GHCi :ghci-cmd:`:info` command shows pattern types in this format.
+
+-  You may specify an explicit *pattern signature*, as we did for
+   ``ExNumPat`` above, to specify the type of a pattern, just as you can
+   for a function. As usual, the type signature can be less polymorphic
+   than the inferred type. For example ::
+
+         -- Inferred type would be 'a -> [a]'
+         pattern SinglePair :: (a, a) -> [(a, a)]
+         pattern SinglePair x = [x]
+
+   Just like signatures on value-level bindings, pattern synonym signatures can
+   apply to more than one pattern. For instance, ::
+
+         pattern Left', Right' :: a -> Either a a
+         pattern Left' x  = Left x
+         pattern Right' x = Right x
+
+-  The rules for lexically-scoped type variables (see
+   :ref:`scoped-type-variables`) apply to pattern-synonym signatures.
+   As those rules specify, only the type variables from an explicit,
+   syntactically-visible outer `forall` (the universals) scope over
+   the definition of the pattern synonym; the existentials, bound by
+   the inner forall, do not.  For example ::
+
+         data T a where
+            MkT :: Bool -> b -> (b->Int) -> a -> T a
+
+         pattern P :: forall a. forall b. b -> (b->Int) -> a -> T a
+         pattern P x y v <- MkT True x y (v::a)
+
+   Here the universal type variable `a` scopes over the definition of `P`,
+   but the existential `b` does not.  (c.f. discussion on #14998.)
+
+-  For a bidirectional pattern synonym, a use of the pattern synonym as
+   an expression has the type
+
+   ::
+
+         (CReq, CProv) => t1 -> t2 -> ... -> tN -> t
+
+   So in the previous example, when used in an expression, ``ExNumPat``
+   has type
+
+   ::
+
+         ExNumPat :: (Num a, Eq a, Show b) => b -> T t
+
+   Notice that this is a tiny bit more restrictive than the expression
+   ``MkT 42 x`` which would not require ``(Eq a)``.
+
+-  Consider these two pattern synonyms: ::
+
+       data S a where
+          S1 :: Bool -> S Bool
+
+       pattern P1 :: Bool -> Maybe Bool
+       pattern P1 b = Just b
+
+       pattern P2 :: () => (b ~ Bool) => Bool -> S b
+       pattern P2 b = S1 b
+
+       f :: Maybe a -> String
+       f (P1 x) = "no no no"     -- Type-incorrect
+
+       g :: S a -> String
+       g (P2 b) = "yes yes yes"  -- Fine
+
+   Pattern ``P1`` can only match against a value of type ``Maybe Bool``,
+   so function ``f`` is rejected because the type signature is
+   ``Maybe a``. (To see this, imagine expanding the pattern synonym.)
+
+   On the other hand, function ``g`` works fine, because matching
+   against ``P2`` (which wraps the GADT ``S``) provides the local
+   equality ``(a~Bool)``. If you were to give an explicit pattern
+   signature ``P2 :: Bool -> S Bool``, then ``P2`` would become less
+   polymorphic, and would behave exactly like ``P1`` so that ``g`` would
+   then be rejected.
+
+   In short, if you want GADT-like behaviour for pattern synonyms, then
+   (unlike concrete data constructors like ``S1``) you must write
+   its type with explicit provided equalities. For a concrete data
+   constructor like ``S1`` you can write its type signature as either
+   ``S1 :: Bool -> S Bool`` or ``S1 :: (b~Bool) => Bool -> S b``; the
+   two are equivalent. Not so for pattern synonyms: the two forms are
+   different, in order to distinguish the two cases above. (See
+   :ghc-ticket:`9953` for discussion of this choice.)
+
+Matching of pattern synonyms
+----------------------------
+
+A pattern synonym occurrence in a pattern is evaluated by first matching
+against the pattern synonym itself, and then on the argument patterns.
+
+More precisely, the semantics of pattern matching is given in
+`Section 3.17 of the Haskell 2010 report <https://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/haskell2010/haskellch3.html#x8-580003.17>`__.   To the informal semantics in Section 3.17.2 we add this extra rule:
+
+* If the pattern is a constructor pattern ``(P p1 ... pn)``, where ``P`` is
+  a pattern synonym defined by ``P x1 ... xn = p`` or ``P x1 ... xn <- p``, then:
+
+  (a) Match the value ``v`` against ``p``. If this match fails or diverges,
+      so does the whole (pattern synonym) match.   Otherwise the match
+      against ``p`` must bind the variables ``x1 ... xn``; let them be bound to values ``v1 ... vn``.
+
+  (b) Match ``v1`` against ``p1``, ``v2`` against ``p2`` and so on.
+      If any of these matches fail or diverge, so does the whole match.
+
+  (c) If all the matches against the ``pi`` succeed, the match succeeds,
+      binding the variables bound by the ``pi`` . (The ``xi`` are not
+      bound; they remain local to the pattern synonym declaration.)
+
+For example, in the following program, ``f`` and ``f'`` are equivalent: ::
+
+    pattern Pair x y <- [x, y]
+
+    f (Pair True True) = True
+    f _                = False
+
+    f' [x, y] | True <- x, True <- y = True
+    f' _                              = False
+
+Note that the strictness of ``f`` differs from that of ``g`` defined
+below:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    g [True, True] = True
+    g _            = False
+
+    *Main> f (False:undefined)
+    *** Exception: Prelude.undefined
+    *Main> g (False:undefined)
+    False
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/patterns.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/patterns.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f55583f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/patterns.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+.. _pattern-extensions:
+
+Patterns
+========
+
+.. toctree::
+    :maxdepth: 1
+
+    pattern_guards
+    view_patterns
+    nk_patterns
+    pattern_synonyms
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/poly_kinds.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/poly_kinds.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..96a0a92
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/poly_kinds.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,931 @@
+.. _type-in-type:
+.. _kind-polymorphism:
+
+Kind polymorphism
+==================================
+
+.. extension:: TypeInType
+    :shortdesc: Deprecated. Enable kind polymorphism and datatype promotion.
+
+    :implies: :extension:`PolyKinds`, :extension:`DataKinds`, :extension:`KindSignatures`
+    :since: 8.0.1
+
+    The extension :extension:`TypeInType` is now deprecated: its sole effect is
+    to switch on :extension:`PolyKinds`
+    (and hence :extension:`KindSignatures`) and :extension:`DataKinds`.
+
+.. extension:: PolyKinds
+    :shortdesc: Enable kind polymorphism.
+        Implies :extension:`KindSignatures`.
+
+    :implies: :extension:`KindSignatures`
+    :since: 7.4.1
+
+    Allow kind polymorphic types.
+
+This section describes GHC's kind system, as it appears in version 8.0 and beyond.
+The kind system as described here is always in effect, with or without extensions,
+although it is a conservative extension beyond standard Haskell. The extensions
+above simply enable syntax and tweak the inference algorithm to allow users to
+take advantage of the extra expressiveness of GHC's kind system.
+
+Overview of kind polymorphism
+-----------------------------
+
+Consider inferring the kind for ::
+
+  data App f a = MkApp (f a)
+
+In Haskell 98, the inferred kind for ``App`` is ``(Type -> Type) -> Type ->
+Type``. But this is overly specific, because another suitable Haskell 98 kind
+for ``App`` is ``((Type -> Type) -> Type) -> (Type -> Type) -> Type``, where the
+kind assigned to ``a`` is ``Type -> Type``. Indeed, without kind signatures
+(:extension:`KindSignatures`), it is necessary to use a dummy constructor to get
+a Haskell compiler to infer the second kind. With kind polymorphism
+(:extension:`PolyKinds`), GHC infers the kind ``forall k. (k -> Type) -> k ->
+Type`` for ``App``, which is its most general kind.
+
+Thus, the chief benefit of kind polymorphism is that we can now infer these
+most general kinds and use ``App`` at a variety of kinds: ::
+
+  App Maybe Int   -- `k` is instantiated to Type
+
+  data T a = MkT (a Int)    -- `a` is inferred to have kind (Type -> Type)
+  App T Maybe     -- `k` is instantiated to (Type -> Type)
+
+Overview of Type-in-Type
+------------------------
+
+GHC 8 extends the idea of kind polymorphism by declaring that types and kinds
+are indeed one and the same. Nothing within GHC distinguishes between types
+and kinds. Another way of thinking about this is that the type ``Bool`` and
+the "promoted kind" ``Bool`` are actually identical. (Note that term
+``True`` and the type ``'True`` are still distinct, because the former can
+be used in expressions and the latter in types.) This lack of distinction
+between types and kinds is a hallmark of dependently typed languages.
+Full dependently typed languages also remove the difference between expressions
+and types, but doing that in GHC is a story for another day.
+
+One simplification allowed by combining types and kinds is that the type of
+``Type`` is just ``Type``. It is true that the ``Type :: Type`` axiom can lead
+to non-termination, but this is not a problem in GHC, as we already have other
+means of non-terminating programs in both types and expressions. This decision
+(among many, many others) *does* mean that despite the expressiveness of GHC's
+type system, a "proof" you write in Haskell is not an irrefutable mathematical
+proof. GHC promises only partial correctness, that if your programs compile and
+run to completion, their results indeed have the types assigned. It makes no
+claim about programs that do not finish in a finite amount of time.
+
+To learn more about this decision and the design of GHC under the hood
+please see the `paper <http://www.seas.upenn.edu/~sweirich/papers/fckinds.pdf>`__
+introducing this kind system to GHC/Haskell.
+
+Principles of kind inference
+----------------------------
+
+Generally speaking, when :extension:`PolyKinds` is on, GHC tries to infer the
+most general kind for a declaration.
+In many cases (for example, in a datatype declaration)
+the definition has a right-hand side to inform kind
+inference. But that is not always the case. Consider ::
+
+    type family F a
+
+Type family declarations have no right-hand side, but GHC must still
+infer a kind for ``F``. Since there are no constraints, it could infer
+``F :: forall k1 k2. k1 -> k2``, but that seems *too* polymorphic. So
+GHC defaults those entirely-unconstrained kind variables to ``Type`` and we
+get ``F :: Type -> Type``. You can still declare ``F`` to be kind-polymorphic
+using kind signatures: ::
+
+    type family F1 a                -- F1 :: Type -> Type
+    type family F2 (a :: k)         -- F2 :: forall k. k -> Type
+    type family F3 a :: k           -- F3 :: forall k. Type -> k
+    type family F4 (a :: k1) :: k2  -- F4 :: forall k1 k2. k1 -> k2
+
+The general principle is this:
+
+-  When there is a right-hand side, GHC infers the most polymorphic
+   kind consistent with the right-hand side. Examples: ordinary data
+   type and GADT declarations, class declarations. In the case of a
+   class declaration the role of "right hand side" is played by the
+   class method signatures.
+
+-  When there is no right hand side, GHC defaults argument and result
+   kinds to ``Type``, except when directed otherwise by a kind signature.
+   Examples: data and open type family declarations.
+
+This rule has occasionally-surprising consequences (see
+:ghc-ticket:`10132`). ::
+
+    class C a where    -- Class declarations are generalised
+                       -- so C :: forall k. k -> Constraint
+      data D1 a        -- No right hand side for these two family
+      type F1 a        -- declarations, but the class forces (a :: k)
+                       -- so   D1, F1 :: forall k. k -> Type
+
+    data D2 a   -- No right-hand side so D2 :: Type -> Type
+    type F2 a   -- No right-hand side so F2 :: Type -> Type
+
+The kind-polymorphism from the class declaration makes ``D1``
+kind-polymorphic, but not so ``D2``; and similarly ``F1``, ``F1``.
+
+.. _inferring-variable-order:
+
+Inferring the order of variables in a type/class declaration
+------------------------------------------------------------
+
+It is possible to get intricate dependencies among the type variables
+introduced in a type or class declaration. Here is an example::
+
+  data T a (b :: k) c = MkT (a c)
+
+After analysing this declaration, GHC will discover that ``a`` and
+``c`` can be kind-polymorphic, with ``a :: k2 -> Type`` and
+``c :: k2``. We thus infer the following kind::
+
+  T :: forall {k2 :: Type} (k :: Type). (k2 -> Type) -> k -> k2 -> Type
+
+Note that ``k2`` is placed *before* ``k``, and that ``k`` is placed *before*
+``a``. Also, note that ``k2`` is written here in braces. As explained with
+:extension:`TypeApplications` (:ref:`inferred-vs-specified`),
+type and kind variables that GHC generalises
+over, but not written in the original program, are not available for visible
+type application. (These are called *inferred* variables.)
+Such variables are written in braces with
+:ghc-flag:`-fprint-explicit-foralls` enabled.
+
+The general principle is this:
+
+  * Variables not available for type application come first.
+
+  * Then come variables the user has written, implicitly brought into scope
+    in a type variable's kind.
+
+  * Lastly come the normal type variables of a declaration.
+
+  * Variables not given an explicit ordering by the user are sorted according
+    to ScopedSort (:ref:`ScopedSort`).
+
+With the ``T`` example above, we could bind ``k`` *after* ``a``; doing so
+would not violate dependency concerns. However, it would violate our general
+principle, and so ``k`` comes first.
+
+Sometimes, this ordering does not respect dependency. For example::
+
+  data T2 k (a :: k) (c :: Proxy '[a, b])
+
+It must be that ``a`` and ``b`` have the same kind. Note also that ``b``
+is implicitly declared in ``c``\'s kind. Thus, according to our general
+principle, ``b`` must come *before* ``k``. However, ``b`` *depends on*
+``k``. We thus reject ``T2`` with a suitable error message.
+
+In associated types, we order the type variables as if the type family was a
+top-level declaration, ignoring the visibilities of the class's type variable
+binders. Here is an example: ::
+
+  class C (a :: k) b where
+    type F (c :: j) (d :: Proxy m) a b
+
+We infer these kinds::
+
+  C :: forall {k1 :: Type} (k :: Type). k -> k1 -> Constraint
+  F :: forall {k1 :: Type} {k2 :: Type} {k3 :: Type} j (m :: k1).
+       j -> Proxy m -> k2 -> k3 -> Type
+
+Note that the kind of ``a`` is specified in the kind of ``C`` but inferred in
+the kind of ``F``.
+
+The "general principle" described here is meant to make all this more
+predictable for users. It would not be hard to extend GHC to relax
+this principle. If you should want a change here, consider writing
+a `proposal <https://github.com/ghc-proposals/ghc-proposals/>`_ to
+do so.
+
+.. index::
+   single: CUSK
+   single: complete user-supplied kind signature
+
+.. _complete-kind-signatures:
+
+Complete user-supplied kind signatures and polymorphic recursion
+----------------------------------------------------------------
+
+.. extension:: CUSKs
+    :shortdesc: Enable detection of complete user-supplied kind signatures.
+
+    :since: 8.10.1
+
+NB! This is a legacy feature, see :extension:`StandaloneKindSignatures` for the
+modern replacement.
+
+Just as in type inference, kind inference for recursive types can only
+use *monomorphic* recursion. Consider this (contrived) example: ::
+
+    data T m a = MkT (m a) (T Maybe (m a))
+    -- GHC infers kind  T :: (Type -> Type) -> Type -> Type
+
+The recursive use of ``T`` forced the second argument to have kind
+``Type``. However, just as in type inference, you can achieve polymorphic
+recursion by giving a *complete user-supplied kind signature* (or CUSK)
+for ``T``. A CUSK is present when all argument kinds and the result kind
+are known, without any need for inference. For example: ::
+
+    data T (m :: k -> Type) :: k -> Type where
+      MkT :: m a -> T Maybe (m a) -> T m a
+
+The complete user-supplied kind signature specifies the polymorphic kind
+for ``T``, and this signature is used for all the calls to ``T``
+including the recursive ones. In particular, the recursive use of ``T``
+is at kind ``Type``.
+
+What exactly is considered to be a "complete user-supplied kind
+signature" for a type constructor? These are the forms:
+
+-  For a datatype, every type variable must be annotated with a kind. In
+   a GADT-style declaration, there may also be a kind signature (with a
+   top-level ``::`` in the header), but the presence or absence of this
+   annotation does not affect whether or not the declaration has a
+   complete signature. ::
+
+       data T1 :: (k -> Type) -> k -> Type       where ...
+       -- Yes;  T1 :: forall k. (k->Type) -> k -> Type
+
+       data T2 (a :: k -> Type) :: k -> Type     where ...
+       -- Yes;  T2 :: forall k. (k->Type) -> k -> Type
+
+       data T3 (a :: k -> Type) (b :: k) :: Type where ...
+       -- Yes;  T3 :: forall k. (k->Type) -> k -> Type
+
+       data T4 (a :: k -> Type) (b :: k)      where ...
+       -- Yes;  T4 :: forall k. (k->Type) -> k -> Type
+
+       data T5 a (b :: k) :: Type             where ...
+       -- No;  kind is inferred
+
+       data T6 a b                         where ...
+       -- No;  kind is inferred
+
+-  For a datatype with a top-level ``::``: all kind variables introduced after
+   the ``::`` must be explicitly quantified. ::
+
+     data T1 :: k -> Type            -- No CUSK: `k` is not explicitly quantified
+     data T2 :: forall k. k -> Type  -- CUSK: `k` is bound explicitly
+     data T3 :: forall (k :: Type). k -> Type   -- still a CUSK
+
+-  For a newtype, the rules are the same as they are for a data type
+   unless :extension:`UnliftedNewtypes` is enabled.
+   With :extension:`UnliftedNewtypes`, the type constructor
+   only has a CUSK if a kind signature is present. As with a datatype
+   with a top-level ``::``, all kind variables must introduced after
+   the ``::`` must be explicitly quantified ::
+
+       {-# LANGUAGE UnliftedNewtypes #-}
+       newtype N1 where                 -- No; missing kind signature
+       newtype N2 :: TYPE 'IntRep where -- Yes; kind signature present
+       newtype N3 (a :: Type) where     -- No; missing kind signature
+       newtype N4 :: k -> Type where    -- No; `k` is not explicitly quantified
+       newtype N5 :: forall (k :: Type). k -> Type where -- Yes; good signature
+
+-  For a class, every type variable must be annotated with a kind.
+
+-  For a type synonym, every type variable and the result type must all
+   be annotated with kinds: ::
+
+       type S1 (a :: k) = (a :: k)    -- Yes   S1 :: forall k. k -> k
+       type S2 (a :: k) = a           -- No    kind is inferred
+       type S3 (a :: k) = Proxy a     -- No    kind is inferred
+
+   Note that in ``S2`` and ``S3``, the kind of the right-hand side is
+   rather apparent, but it is still not considered to have a complete
+   signature -- no inference can be done before detecting the signature.
+
+-  An un-associated open type or data family declaration *always* has a CUSK;
+   un-annotated type variables default to kind ``Type``: ::
+
+       data family D1 a                  -- D1 :: Type -> Type
+       data family D2 (a :: k)           -- D2 :: forall k. k -> Type
+       data family D3 (a :: k) :: Type   -- D3 :: forall k. k -> Type
+       type family S1 a :: k -> Type     -- S1 :: forall k. Type -> k -> Type
+
+-  An associated type or data family declaration has a CUSK precisely if
+   its enclosing class has a CUSK. ::
+
+       class C a where                -- no CUSK
+         type AT a b                  -- no CUSK, b is defaulted
+
+       class D (a :: k) where         -- yes CUSK
+         type AT2 a b                 -- yes CUSK, b is defaulted
+
+-  A closed type family has a complete signature when all of its type
+   variables are annotated and a return kind (with a top-level ``::``)
+   is supplied.
+
+It is possible to write a datatype that syntactically has a CUSK (according to
+the rules above) but actually requires some inference. As a very contrived
+example, consider ::
+
+  data Proxy a           -- Proxy :: forall k. k -> Type
+  data X (a :: Proxy k)
+
+According to the rules above ``X`` has a CUSK. Yet, the kind of ``k`` is undetermined.
+It is thus quantified over, giving ``X`` the kind ``forall k1 (k :: k1). Proxy k -> Type``.
+
+The detection of CUSKs is enabled by the :extension:`CUSKs` flag, which is
+switched on by default. This extension is scheduled for deprecation to be
+replaced with :extension:`StandaloneKindSignatures`.
+
+.. index::
+   single: standalone kind signature
+
+.. _standalone-kind-signatures:
+
+Standalone kind signatures and polymorphic recursion
+----------------------------------------------------
+
+.. extension:: StandaloneKindSignatures
+    :shortdesc: Allow the use of standalone kind signatures.
+
+    :implies: :extension:`NoCUSKs`
+    :since: 8.10.1
+
+Just as in type inference, kind inference for recursive types can only
+use *monomorphic* recursion. Consider this (contrived) example: ::
+
+    data T m a = MkT (m a) (T Maybe (m a))
+    -- GHC infers kind  T :: (Type -> Type) -> Type -> Type
+
+The recursive use of ``T`` forced the second argument to have kind
+``Type``. However, just as in type inference, you can achieve polymorphic
+recursion by giving a *standalone kind signature* for ``T``: ::
+
+    type T :: (k -> Type) -> k -> Type
+    data T m a = MkT (m a) (T Maybe (m a))
+
+The standalone kind signature specifies the polymorphic kind
+for ``T``, and this signature is used for all the calls to ``T``
+including the recursive ones. In particular, the recursive use of ``T``
+is at kind ``Type``.
+
+While a standalone kind signature determines the kind of a type constructor, it
+does not determine its arity. This is of particular importance for type
+families and type synonyms, as they cannot be partially applied. See
+:ref:`type-family-declarations` for more information about arity.
+
+The arity can be specified using explicit binders and inline kind annotations::
+
+    -- arity F0 = 0
+    type F0 :: forall k. k -> Type
+    type family F0 :: forall k. k -> Type
+
+    -- arity F1 = 1
+    type F1 :: forall k. k -> Type
+    type family F1 :: k -> Type
+
+    -- arity F2 = 2
+    type F2 :: forall k. k -> Type
+    type family F2 a :: Type
+
+In absence of an inline kind annotation, the inferred arity includes all
+explicitly bound parameters and all immediately following invisible
+parameters::
+
+    -- arity FD1 = 1
+    type FD1 :: forall k. k -> Type
+    type FD1
+
+    -- arity FD2 = 2
+    type FD2 :: forall k. k -> Type
+    type FD2 a
+
+Note that ``F0``, ``F1``, ``F2``, ``FD1``, and ``FD2`` all have identical
+standalone kind signatures. The arity is inferred from the type family header.
+
+Standalone kind signatures and declaration headers
+--------------------------------------------------
+
+GHC requires that in the presence of a standalone kind signature, data
+declarations must bind all their inputs. For example: ::
+
+    type Prox1 :: k -> Type
+    data Prox1 a = MkProx1
+      -- OK.
+
+    type Prox2 :: k -> Type
+    data Prox2 = MkProx2
+      -- Error:
+      --   • Expected a type, but found something with kind ‘k -> Type’
+      --   • In the data type declaration for ‘Prox2’
+
+
+GADT-style data declarations may either bind their inputs or use an inline
+signature in addition to the standalone kind signature: ::
+
+    type GProx1 :: k -> Type
+    data GProx1 a where MkGProx1 :: GProx1 a
+      -- OK.
+
+    type GProx2 :: k -> Type
+    data GProx2 where MkGProx2 :: GProx2 a
+      -- Error:
+      --   • Expected a type, but found something with kind ‘k -> Type’
+      --   • In the data type declaration for ‘GProx2’
+
+    type GProx3 :: k -> Type
+    data GProx3 :: k -> Type where MkGProx3 :: GProx3 a
+      -- OK.
+
+    type GProx4 :: k -> Type
+    data GProx4 :: w where MkGProx4 :: GProx4 a
+      -- OK, w ~ (k -> Type)
+
+Classes are subject to the same rules: ::
+
+    type C1 :: Type -> Constraint
+    class C1 a
+      -- OK.
+
+    type C2 :: Type -> Constraint
+    class C2
+      -- Error:
+      --   • Couldn't match expected kind ‘Constraint’
+      --                 with actual kind ‘Type -> Constraint’
+      --   • In the class declaration for ‘C2’
+
+On the other hand, type families are exempt from this rule: ::
+
+    type F :: Type -> Type
+    type family F
+      -- OK.
+
+Data families are tricky territory. Their headers are exempt from this rule,
+but their instances are not: ::
+
+    type T :: k -> Type
+    data family T
+      -- OK.
+
+    data instance T Int = MkT1
+      -- OK.
+
+    data instance T = MkT3
+      -- Error:
+      --   • Expecting one more argument to ‘T’
+      --     Expected a type, but ‘T’ has kind ‘k0 -> Type’
+      --   • In the data instance declaration for ‘T’
+
+This also applies to GADT-style data instances: ::
+
+    data instance T (a :: Nat) where MkN4 :: T 4
+                                     MKN9 :: T 9
+      -- OK.
+
+    data instance T :: Symbol -> Type where MkSN :: T "Neptune"
+                                            MkSJ :: T "Jupiter"
+      -- OK.
+
+    data instance T where MkT4 :: T x
+      -- Error:
+      --   • Expecting one more argument to ‘T’
+      --     Expected a type, but ‘T’ has kind ‘k0 -> Type’
+      --   • In the data instance declaration for ‘T’
+
+
+Kind inference in closed type families
+--------------------------------------
+
+Although all open type families are considered to have a complete
+user-supplied kind signature, we can relax this condition for closed
+type families, where we have equations on which to perform kind
+inference. GHC will infer kinds for the arguments and result types of a
+closed type family.
+
+GHC supports *kind-indexed* type families, where the family matches both
+on the kind and type. GHC will *not* infer this behaviour without a
+complete user-supplied kind signature, as doing so would sometimes infer
+non-principal types. Indeed, we can see kind-indexing as a form
+of polymorphic recursion, where a type is used at a kind other than
+its most general in its own definition.
+
+For example: ::
+
+    type family F1 a where
+      F1 True  = False
+      F1 False = True
+      F1 x     = x
+    -- F1 fails to compile: kind-indexing is not inferred
+
+    type family F2 (a :: k) where
+      F2 True  = False
+      F2 False = True
+      F2 x     = x
+    -- F2 fails to compile: no complete signature
+
+    type family F3 (a :: k) :: k where
+      F3 True  = False
+      F3 False = True
+      F3 x     = x
+    -- OK
+
+Kind inference in class instance declarations
+---------------------------------------------
+
+Consider the following example of a poly-kinded class and an instance
+for it: ::
+
+    class C a where
+      type F a
+
+    instance C b where
+      type F b = b -> b
+
+In the class declaration, nothing constrains the kind of the type ``a``,
+so it becomes a poly-kinded type variable ``(a :: k)``. Yet, in the
+instance declaration, the right-hand side of the associated type
+instance ``b -> b`` says that ``b`` must be of kind ``Type``. GHC could
+theoretically propagate this information back into the instance head,
+and make that instance declaration apply only to type of kind ``Type``, as
+opposed to types of any kind. However, GHC does *not* do this.
+
+In short: GHC does *not* propagate kind information from the members of
+a class instance declaration into the instance declaration head.
+
+This lack of kind inference is simply an engineering problem within GHC,
+but getting it to work would make a substantial change to the inference
+infrastructure, and it's not clear the payoff is worth it. If you want
+to restrict ``b``\ 's kind in the instance above, just use a kind
+signature in the instance head.
+
+Kind inference in type signatures
+---------------------------------
+
+When kind-checking a type, GHC considers only what is written in that
+type when figuring out how to generalise the type's kind.
+
+For example,
+consider these definitions (with :extension:`ScopedTypeVariables`): ::
+
+  data Proxy a    -- Proxy :: forall k. k -> Type
+  p :: forall a. Proxy a
+  p = Proxy :: Proxy (a :: Type)
+
+GHC reports an error, saying that the kind of ``a`` should be a kind variable
+``k``, not ``Type``. This is because, by looking at the type signature
+``forall a. Proxy a``, GHC assumes ``a``'s kind should be generalised, not
+restricted to be ``Type``. The function definition is then rejected for being
+more specific than its type signature.
+
+.. _explicit-kind-quantification:
+
+Explicit kind quantification
+----------------------------
+
+Enabled by :extension:`PolyKinds`, GHC supports explicit kind quantification,
+as in these examples: ::
+
+  data Proxy :: forall k. k -> Type
+  f :: (forall k (a :: k). Proxy a -> ()) -> Int
+
+Note that the second example has a ``forall`` that binds both a kind ``k`` and
+a type variable ``a`` of kind ``k``. In general, there is no limit to how
+deeply nested this sort of dependency can work. However, the dependency must
+be well-scoped: ``forall (a :: k) k. ...`` is an error.
+
+Implicit quantification in type synonyms and type family instances
+------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Consider the scoping rules for type synonyms and type family instances, such as
+these::
+
+   type          TS a (b :: k) = <rhs>
+   type instance TF a (b :: k) = <rhs>
+
+The basic principle is that all variables mentioned on the right hand side
+``<rhs>`` must be bound on the left hand side::
+
+  type TS a (b :: k) = (k, a, Proxy b)    -- accepted
+  type TS a (b :: k) = (k, a, Proxy b, z) -- rejected: z not in scope
+
+But there is one exception: free variables mentioned in the outermost kind
+signature on the right hand side are quantified implicitly. Thus, in the
+following example the variables ``a``, ``b``, and ``k`` are all in scope on the
+right hand side of ``S``::
+
+  type S a b = <rhs> :: k -> k
+
+The reason for this exception is that there may be no other way to bind ``k``.
+For example, suppose we wanted ``S`` to have the the following kind with an
+*invisible* parameter ``k``::
+
+  S :: forall k. Type -> Type -> k -> k
+
+In this case, we could not simply bind ``k`` on the left-hand side, as ``k``
+would become a *visible* parameter::
+
+  type S k a b = <rhs> :: k -> k
+  S :: forall k -> Type -> Type -> k -> k
+
+Note that we only look at the *outermost* kind signature to decide which
+variables to quantify implicitly. As a counter-example, consider ``M1``: ::
+
+  type M1 = 'Just ('Nothing :: Maybe k)    -- rejected: k not in scope
+
+Here, the kind signature is hidden inside ``'Just``, and there is no outermost
+kind signature. We can fix this example by providing an outermost kind signature: ::
+
+  type M2 = 'Just ('Nothing :: Maybe k) :: Maybe (Maybe k)
+
+Here, ``k`` is brought into scope by ``:: Maybe (Maybe k)``.
+
+A kind signature is considered to be outermost regardless of redundant
+parentheses: ::
+
+  type P =    'Nothing :: Maybe a    -- accepted
+  type P = ((('Nothing :: Maybe a))) -- accepted
+
+Closed type family instances are subject to the same rules: ::
+
+  type family F where
+    F = 'Nothing :: Maybe k            -- accepted
+
+  type family F where
+    F = 'Just ('Nothing :: Maybe k)    -- rejected: k not in scope
+
+  type family F where
+    F = 'Just ('Nothing :: Maybe k) :: Maybe (Maybe k)  -- accepted
+
+  type family F :: Maybe (Maybe k) where
+    F = 'Just ('Nothing :: Maybe k)    -- rejected: k not in scope
+
+  type family F :: Maybe (Maybe k) where
+    F @k = 'Just ('Nothing :: Maybe k) -- accepted
+
+Kind variables can also be quantified in *visible* positions. Consider the
+following two examples: ::
+
+  data ProxyKInvis (a :: k)
+  data ProxyKVis k (a :: k)
+
+In the first example, the kind variable ``k`` is an *invisible* argument to
+``ProxyKInvis``. In other words, a user does not need to instantiate ``k``
+explicitly, as kind inference automatically determines what ``k`` should be.
+For instance, in ``ProxyKInvis True``, ``k`` is inferred to be ``Bool``.
+This is reflected in the kind of ``ProxyKInvis``: ::
+
+  ProxyKInvis :: forall k. k -> Type
+
+In the second example, ``k`` is a *visible* argument to ``ProxyKVis``. That is
+to say, ``k`` is an argument that users must provide explicitly when applying
+``ProxyKVis``. For example, ``ProxyKVis Bool True`` is a well formed type.
+
+What is the kind of ``ProxyKVis``? One might say
+``forall k. Type -> k -> Type``, but this isn't quite right, since this would
+allow incorrect things like ``ProxyKVis Bool Int``, which should be rejected
+due to the fact that ``Int`` is not of kind ``Bool``. The key observation is that
+the kind of the second argument *depend* on the first argument. GHC indicates
+this dependency in the syntax that it gives for the kind of ``ProxyKVis``: ::
+
+  ProxyKVis :: forall k -> k -> Type
+
+This kind is similar to the kind of ``ProxyKInvis``, but with a key difference:
+the type variables quantified by the ``forall`` are followed by an arrow
+(``->``), not a dot (``.``). This is a visible, dependent quantifier. It is
+visible in that it the user must pass in a type for ``k`` explicitly, and it is
+dependent in the sense that ``k`` appears later in the kind of ``ProxyKVis``.
+As a counterpart, the ``k`` binder in ``forall k. k -> Type`` can be thought
+of as an *invisible*, dependent quantifier.
+
+GHC permits writing kinds with this syntax, provided that the
+``ExplicitForAll`` and ``PolyKinds`` language extensions are enabled. Just
+like the invisible ``forall``, one can put explicit kind signatures on visibly
+bound kind variables, so the following is syntactically valid: ::
+
+  ProxyKVis :: forall (k :: Type) -> k -> Type
+
+Currently, the ability to write visible, dependent quantifiers is limited to
+kinds. Consequently, visible dependent quantifiers are rejected in any context
+that is unambiguously the type of a term. They are also rejected in the types
+of data constructors.
+
+Kind-indexed GADTs
+------------------
+
+Consider the type ::
+
+  data G (a :: k) where
+    GInt    :: G Int
+    GMaybe  :: G Maybe
+
+This datatype ``G`` is GADT-like in both its kind and its type. Suppose you
+have ``g :: G a``, where ``a :: k``. Then pattern matching to discover that
+``g`` is in fact ``GMaybe`` tells you both that ``k ~ (Type -> Type)`` and
+``a ~ Maybe``. The definition for ``G`` requires that :extension:`PolyKinds`
+be in effect, but pattern-matching on ``G`` requires no extension beyond
+:extension:`GADTs`. That this works is actually a straightforward extension
+of regular GADTs and a consequence of the fact that kinds and types are the
+same.
+
+Note that the datatype ``G`` is used at different kinds in its body, and
+therefore that kind-indexed GADTs use a form of polymorphic recursion.
+It is thus only possible to use this feature if you have provided a
+complete user-supplied kind signature
+for the datatype (:ref:`complete-kind-signatures`).
+
+Higher-rank kinds
+-----------------
+
+In concert with :extension:`RankNTypes`, GHC supports higher-rank kinds.
+Here is an example::
+
+  -- Heterogeneous propositional equality
+  data (a :: k1) :~~: (b :: k2) where
+    HRefl :: a :~~: a
+
+  class HTestEquality (t :: forall k. k -> Type) where
+    hTestEquality :: forall k1 k2 (a :: k1) (b :: k2). t a -> t b -> Maybe (a :~~: b)
+
+Note that ``hTestEquality`` takes two arguments where the type variable ``t`` is applied
+to types of different kinds. That type variable must then be polykinded. Accordingly,
+the kind of ``HTestEquality`` (the class) is ``(forall k. k -> Type) -> Constraint``,
+a higher-rank kind.
+
+A big difference with higher-rank kinds as compared with higher-rank types is that
+``forall``\s in kinds *cannot* be moved. This is best illustrated by example.
+Suppose we want to have an instance of ``HTestEquality`` for ``(:~~:)``. ::
+
+  instance HTestEquality ((:~~:) a) where
+    hTestEquality HRefl HRefl = Just HRefl
+
+With the declaration of ``(:~~:)`` above, it gets kind ``forall k1 k2. k1 -> k2 -> Type``.
+Thus, the type ``(:~~:) a`` has kind ``k2 -> Type`` for some ``k2``. GHC cannot
+then *regeneralize* this kind to become ``forall k2. k2 -> Type`` as desired. Thus, the
+instance is rejected as ill-kinded.
+
+To allow for such an instance, we would have to define ``(:~~:)`` as follows::
+
+  data (:~~:) :: forall k1. k1 -> forall k2. k2 -> Type where
+    HRefl :: a :~~: a
+
+In this redefinition, we give an explicit kind for ``(:~~:)``, deferring the choice
+of ``k2`` until after the first argument (``a``) has been given. With this declaration
+for ``(:~~:)``, the instance for ``HTestEquality`` is accepted.
+
+Another difference between higher-rank kinds and types can be found in their
+treatment of inferred and user-specified type variables. Consider the following
+program: ::
+
+  newtype Foo (f :: forall k. k -> Type) = MkFoo (f Int)
+  data Proxy a = Proxy
+
+  foo :: Foo Proxy
+  foo = MkFoo Proxy
+
+The kind of ``Foo``'s parameter is ``forall k. k -> Type``, but the kind of
+``Proxy`` is ``forall {k}. k -> Type``, where ``{k}`` denotes that the kind
+variable ``k`` is to be inferred, not specified by the user. (See
+:ref:`visible-type-application` for more discussion on the inferred-specified
+distinction). GHC does not consider ``forall k. k -> Type`` and
+``forall {k}. k -> Type`` to be equal at the kind level, and thus rejects
+``Foo Proxy`` as ill-kinded.
+
+Constraints in kinds
+--------------------
+
+As kinds and types are the same, kinds can (with :extension:`TypeInType`)
+contain type constraints. However, only equality constraints are supported.
+
+Here is an example of a constrained kind: ::
+
+  type family IsTypeLit a where
+    IsTypeLit Nat    = 'True
+    IsTypeLit Symbol = 'True
+    IsTypeLit a      = 'False
+
+  data T :: forall a. (IsTypeLit a ~ 'True) => a -> Type where
+    MkNat    :: T 42
+    MkSymbol :: T "Don't panic!"
+
+The declarations above are accepted. However, if we add ``MkOther :: T Int``,
+we get an error that the equality constraint is not satisfied; ``Int`` is
+not a type literal. Note that explicitly quantifying with ``forall a`` is
+necessary in order for ``T`` to typecheck
+(see :ref:`complete-kind-signatures`).
+
+The kind ``Type``
+-----------------
+
+.. extension:: StarIsType
+    :shortdesc: Treat ``*`` as ``Data.Kind.Type``.
+
+    :since: 8.6.1
+
+    Treat the unqualified uses of the ``*`` type operator as nullary and desugar
+    to ``Data.Kind.Type``.
+
+The kind ``Type`` (imported from ``Data.Kind``) classifies ordinary types. With
+:extension:`StarIsType` (currently enabled by default), ``*`` is desugared to
+``Type``, but using this legacy syntax is not recommended due to conflicts with
+:extension:`TypeOperators`. This also applies to ``★``, the Unicode variant of
+``*``.
+
+Inferring dependency in datatype declarations
+---------------------------------------------
+
+If a type variable ``a`` in a datatype, class, or type family declaration
+depends on another such variable ``k`` in the same declaration, two properties
+must hold:
+
+-  ``a`` must appear after ``k`` in the declaration, and
+
+-  ``k`` must appear explicitly in the kind of *some* type variable in that
+   declaration.
+
+The first bullet simply means that the dependency must be well-scoped. The
+second bullet concerns GHC's ability to infer dependency. Inferring this
+dependency is difficult, and GHC currently requires the dependency to be
+made explicit, meaning that ``k`` must appear in the kind of a type variable,
+making it obvious to GHC that dependency is intended. For example: ::
+
+  data Proxy k (a :: k)            -- OK: dependency is "obvious"
+  data Proxy2 k a = P (Proxy k a)  -- ERROR: dependency is unclear
+
+In the second declaration, GHC cannot immediately tell that ``k`` should
+be a dependent variable, and so the declaration is rejected.
+
+It is conceivable that this restriction will be relaxed in the future,
+but it is (at the time of writing) unclear if the difficulties around this
+scenario are theoretical (inferring this dependency would mean our type
+system does not have principal types) or merely practical (inferring this
+dependency is hard, given GHC's implementation). So, GHC takes the easy
+way out and requires a little help from the user.
+
+Inferring dependency in user-written ``forall``\s
+-------------------------------------------------
+
+A programmer may use ``forall`` in a type to introduce new quantified type
+variables. These variables may depend on each other, even in the same
+``forall``. However, GHC requires that the dependency be inferrable from
+the body of the ``forall``. Here are some examples::
+
+  data Proxy k (a :: k) = MkProxy   -- just to use below
+
+  f :: forall k a. Proxy k a        -- This is just fine. We see that (a :: k).
+  f = undefined
+
+  g :: Proxy k a -> ()              -- This is to use below.
+  g = undefined
+
+  data Sing a
+  h :: forall k a. Sing k -> Sing a -> ()  -- No obvious relationship between k and a
+  h _ _ = g (MkProxy :: Proxy k a)  -- This fails. We didn't know that a should have kind k.
+
+Note that in the last example, it's impossible to learn that ``a`` depends on ``k`` in the
+body of the ``forall`` (that is, the ``Sing k -> Sing a -> ()``). And so GHC rejects
+the program.
+
+Kind defaulting without :extension:`PolyKinds`
+-----------------------------------------------
+
+Without :extension:`PolyKinds`, GHC refuses to generalise over kind variables.
+It thus defaults kind variables to ``Type`` when possible; when this is not
+possible, an error is issued.
+
+Here is an example of this in action: ::
+
+  {-# LANGUAGE PolyKinds #-}
+  import Data.Kind (Type)
+  data Proxy a = P   -- inferred kind: Proxy :: k -> Type
+  data Compose f g x = MkCompose (f (g x))
+    -- inferred kind: Compose :: (b -> Type) -> (a -> b) -> a -> Type
+
+  -- separate module having imported the first
+  {-# LANGUAGE NoPolyKinds, DataKinds #-}
+  z = Proxy :: Proxy 'MkCompose
+
+In the last line, we use the promoted constructor ``'MkCompose``, which has
+kind ::
+
+  forall (a :: Type) (b :: Type) (f :: b -> Type) (g :: a -> b) (x :: a).
+    f (g x) -> Compose f g x
+
+Now we must infer a type for ``z``. To do so without generalising over kind
+variables, we must default the kind variables of ``'MkCompose``. We can easily
+default ``a`` and ``b`` to ``Type``, but ``f`` and ``g`` would be ill-kinded if
+defaulted. The definition for ``z`` is thus an error.
+
+Pretty-printing in the presence of kind polymorphism
+----------------------------------------------------
+
+With kind polymorphism, there is quite a bit going on behind the scenes that
+may be invisible to a Haskell programmer. GHC supports several flags that
+control how types are printed in error messages and at the GHCi prompt.
+See the :ref:`discussion of type pretty-printing options <pretty-printing-types>`
+for further details. If you are using kind polymorphism and are confused as to
+why GHC is rejecting (or accepting) your program, we encourage you to turn on
+these flags, especially :ghc-flag:`-fprint-explicit-kinds`.
+
+.. index::
+   single: TYPE
+   single: levity polymorphism
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/pragmas.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/pragmas.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3c2e3dd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/pragmas.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,944 @@
+.. _pragmas:
+
+Pragmas
+=======
+
+.. index::
+   single: pragma
+
+GHC supports several pragmas, or instructions to the compiler placed in
+the source code. Pragmas don't normally affect the meaning of the
+program, but they might affect the efficiency of the generated code.
+
+Pragmas all take the form ``{-# word ... #-}`` where ⟨word⟩ indicates
+the type of pragma, and is followed optionally by information specific
+to that type of pragma. Case is ignored in ⟨word⟩. The various values
+for ⟨word⟩ that GHC understands are described in the following sections;
+any pragma encountered with an unrecognised ⟨word⟩ is ignored. The
+layout rule applies in pragmas, so the closing ``#-}`` should start in a
+column to the right of the opening ``{-#``.
+
+Certain pragmas are *file-header pragmas*:
+
+-  A file-header pragma must precede the ``module`` keyword in the file.
+
+-  There can be as many file-header pragmas as you please, and they can
+   be preceded or followed by comments.
+
+-  File-header pragmas are read once only, before pre-processing the
+   file (e.g. with cpp).
+
+-  The file-header pragmas are: ``{-# LANGUAGE #-}``,
+   ``{-# OPTIONS_GHC #-}``, and ``{-# INCLUDE #-}``.
+
+.. _language-pragma:
+
+``LANGUAGE`` pragma
+-------------------
+
+.. pragma:: LANGUAGE ⟨ext⟩, ⟨ext⟩, ...
+
+    :where: file header
+
+    Enable or disable a set of language extensions.
+
+The ``LANGUAGE`` pragma allows language extensions to be enabled in a
+portable way. It is the intention that all Haskell compilers support the
+``LANGUAGE`` pragma with the same syntax, although not all extensions
+are supported by all compilers, of course. The ``LANGUAGE`` pragma
+should be used instead of ``OPTIONS_GHC``, if possible.
+
+For example, to enable the FFI and preprocessing with CPP: ::
+
+    {-# LANGUAGE ForeignFunctionInterface, CPP #-}
+
+``LANGUAGE`` is a file-header pragma (see :ref:`pragmas`).
+
+Every language extension can also be turned into a command-line flag by
+prefixing it with "``-X``"; for example ``-XForeignFunctionInterface``.
+(Similarly, all "``-X``" flags can be written as ``LANGUAGE`` pragmas.)
+
+A list of all supported language extensions can be obtained by invoking
+``ghc --supported-extensions`` (see :ghc-flag:`--supported-extensions`).
+
+Any extension from the ``Extension`` type defined in
+:cabal-ref:`Language.Haskell.Extension.` may be used. GHC will report an error
+if any of the requested extensions are not supported.
+
+.. _options-pragma:
+
+``OPTIONS_GHC`` pragma
+----------------------
+
+.. pragma:: OPTIONS_GHC ⟨flags⟩
+
+    :where: file header
+
+The ``OPTIONS_GHC`` pragma is used to specify additional options that
+are given to the compiler when compiling this source file. See
+:ref:`source-file-options` for details.
+
+Previous versions of GHC accepted ``OPTIONS`` rather than
+``OPTIONS_GHC``, but that is now deprecated.
+
+``OPTIONS_GHC`` is a file-header pragma (see :ref:`pragmas`).
+
+.. _include-pragma:
+
+``INCLUDE`` pragma
+------------------
+
+The ``INCLUDE`` used to be necessary for specifying header files to be
+included when using the FFI and compiling via C. It is no longer
+required for GHC, but is accepted (and ignored) for compatibility with
+other compilers.
+
+.. _warning-deprecated-pragma:
+
+``WARNING`` and ``DEPRECATED`` pragmas
+--------------------------------------
+
+.. pragma:: WARNING
+
+    :where: declaration
+
+    The ``WARNING`` pragma allows you to attach an arbitrary warning to a
+    particular function, class, or type.
+
+.. pragma:: DEPRECATED
+
+    :where: declaration
+
+    A ``DEPRECATED`` pragma lets you specify that a particular function, class,
+    or type is deprecated.
+
+There are two ways of using these pragmas.
+
+-  You can work on an entire module thus: ::
+
+          module Wibble {-# DEPRECATED "Use Wobble instead" #-} where
+            ...
+
+   Or: ::
+
+          module Wibble {-# WARNING "This is an unstable interface." #-} where
+            ...
+
+   When you compile any module that import ``Wibble``, GHC will print
+   the specified message.
+
+-  You can attach a warning to a function, class, type, or data
+   constructor, with the following top-level declarations: ::
+
+          {-# DEPRECATED f, C, T "Don't use these" #-}
+          {-# WARNING unsafePerformIO "This is unsafe; I hope you know what you're doing" #-}
+
+   When you compile any module that imports and uses any of the
+   specified entities, GHC will print the specified message.
+
+   You can only attach to entities declared at top level in the module
+   being compiled, and you can only use unqualified names in the list of
+   entities. A capitalised name, such as ``T`` refers to *either* the
+   type constructor ``T`` *or* the data constructor ``T``, or both if
+   both are in scope. If both are in scope, there is currently no way to
+   specify one without the other (c.f. fixities :ref:`infix-tycons`).
+
+Also note that the argument to ``DEPRECATED`` and ``WARNING`` can also be a list
+of strings, in which case the strings will be presented on separate lines in the
+resulting warning message, ::
+
+    {-# DEPRECATED foo, bar ["Don't use these", "Use gar instead"] #-}
+
+Warnings and deprecations are not reported for (a) uses within the
+defining module, (b) defining a method in a class instance, and (c) uses
+in an export list. The latter reduces spurious complaints within a
+library in which one module gathers together and re-exports the exports
+of several others.
+
+You can suppress the warnings with the flag
+:ghc-flag:`-Wno-warnings-deprecations <-Wwarnings-deprecations>`.
+
+.. _minimal-pragma:
+
+``MINIMAL`` pragma
+------------------
+
+.. pragma:: MINIMAL ⟨name⟩ | ⟨name⟩ , ...
+
+    :where: in class body
+
+    Define the methods needed for a minimal complete instance of a class.
+
+The ``MINIMAL`` pragma is used to specify the minimal complete definition of
+a class, i.e. specify which methods must be implemented by all
+instances. If an instance does not satisfy the minimal complete
+definition, then a warning is generated. This can be useful when a class
+has methods with circular defaults. For example ::
+
+    class Eq a where
+        (==) :: a -> a -> Bool
+        (/=) :: a -> a -> Bool
+        x == y = not (x /= y)
+        x /= y = not (x == y)
+        {-# MINIMAL (==) | (/=) #-}
+
+Without the ``MINIMAL`` pragma no warning would be generated for an instance
+that implements neither method.
+
+The syntax for minimal complete definition is: ::
+
+    mindef ::= name
+            |  '(' mindef ')'
+            |  mindef '|' mindef
+            |  mindef ',' mindef
+
+A vertical bar denotes disjunction, i.e. one of the two sides is
+required. A comma denotes conjunction, i.e. both sides are required.
+Conjunction binds stronger than disjunction.
+
+If no ``MINIMAL`` pragma is given in the class declaration, it is just as if
+a pragma ``{-# MINIMAL op1, op2, ..., opn #-}`` was given, where the
+``opi`` are the methods that lack a default method in the class
+declaration (c.f. :ghc-flag:`-Wmissing-methods`, :ref:`options-sanity`).
+
+This warning can be turned off with the flag
+:ghc-flag:`-Wno-missing-methods <-Wmissing-methods>`.
+
+.. _inline-noinline-pragma:
+
+``INLINE`` and ``NOINLINE`` pragmas
+-----------------------------------
+
+These pragmas control the inlining of function definitions.
+
+.. _inline-pragma:
+
+``INLINE`` pragma
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. pragma:: INLINE ⟨name⟩
+
+    :where: top-level
+
+    Force GHC to inline a value.
+
+GHC (with :ghc-flag:`-O`, as always) tries to inline (or "unfold")
+functions/values that are "small enough," thus avoiding the call
+overhead and possibly exposing other more-wonderful optimisations. GHC
+has a set of heuristics, tuned over a long period of time using many
+benchmarks, that decide when it is beneficial to inline a function at
+its call site. The heuristics are designed to inline functions when it
+appears to be beneficial to do so, but without incurring excessive code
+bloat. If a function looks too big, it won't be inlined, and functions
+larger than a certain size will not even have their definition exported
+in the interface file. Some of the thresholds that govern these
+heuristic decisions can be changed using flags, see :ref:`options-f`.
+
+Normally GHC will do a reasonable job of deciding by itself when it is a
+good idea to inline a function. However, sometimes you might want to
+override the default behaviour. For example, if you have a key function
+that is important to inline because it leads to further optimisations,
+but GHC judges it to be too big to inline.
+
+The sledgehammer you can bring to bear is the ``INLINE`` pragma, used thusly: ::
+
+    key_function :: Int -> String -> (Bool, Double)
+    {-# INLINE key_function #-}
+
+The major effect of an ``INLINE`` pragma is to declare a function's
+"cost" to be very low. The normal unfolding machinery will then be very
+keen to inline it. However, an ``INLINE`` pragma for a function "``f``"
+has a number of other effects:
+
+-  While GHC is keen to inline the function, it does not do so blindly.
+   For example, if you write ::
+
+       map key_function xs
+
+   there really isn't any point in inlining ``key_function`` to get ::
+
+       map (\x -> body) xs
+
+   In general, GHC only inlines the function if there is some reason (no
+   matter how slight) to suppose that it is useful to do so.
+
+-  Moreover, GHC will only inline the function if it is *fully applied*,
+   where "fully applied" means applied to as many arguments as appear
+   (syntactically) on the LHS of the function definition. For example: ::
+
+       comp1 :: (b -> c) -> (a -> b) -> a -> c
+       {-# INLINE comp1 #-}
+       comp1 f g = \x -> f (g x)
+
+       comp2 :: (b -> c) -> (a -> b) -> a -> c
+       {-# INLINE comp2 #-}
+       comp2 f g x = f (g x)
+
+   The two functions ``comp1`` and ``comp2`` have the same semantics,
+   but ``comp1`` will be inlined when applied to *two* arguments, while
+   ``comp2`` requires *three*. This might make a big difference if you
+   say ::
+
+       map (not `comp1` not) xs
+
+   which will optimise better than the corresponding use of ``comp2``.
+
+-  It is useful for GHC to optimise the definition of an INLINE function
+   ``f`` just like any other non-``INLINE`` function, in case the
+   non-inlined version of ``f`` is ultimately called. But we don't want
+   to inline the *optimised* version of ``f``; a major reason for ``INLINE``
+   pragmas is to expose functions in ``f``\'s RHS that have rewrite
+   rules, and it's no good if those functions have been optimised away.
+
+   So *GHC guarantees to inline precisely the code that you wrote*, no
+   more and no less. It does this by capturing a copy of the definition
+   of the function to use for inlining (we call this the "inline-RHS"),
+   which it leaves untouched, while optimising the ordinarily RHS as
+   usual. For externally-visible functions the inline-RHS (not the
+   optimised RHS) is recorded in the interface file.
+
+-  An ``INLINE`` function is not worker/wrappered by strictness analysis.
+   It's going to be inlined wholesale instead.
+
+GHC ensures that inlining cannot go on forever: every mutually-recursive
+group is cut by one or more *loop breakers* that is never inlined (see
+`Secrets of the GHC inliner, JFP 12(4) July
+2002 <http://research.microsoft.com/%7Esimonpj/Papers/inlining/index.htm>`__).
+GHC tries not to select a function with an ``INLINE`` pragma as a loop
+breaker, but when there is no choice even an INLINE function can be
+selected, in which case the ``INLINE`` pragma is ignored. For example, for a
+self-recursive function, the loop breaker can only be the function
+itself, so an ``INLINE`` pragma is always ignored.
+
+Syntactically, an ``INLINE`` pragma for a function can be put anywhere
+its type signature could be put.
+
+``INLINE`` pragmas are a particularly good idea for the
+``then``/``return`` (or ``bind``/``unit``) functions in a monad. For
+example, in GHC's own ``UniqueSupply`` monad code, we have: ::
+
+    {-# INLINE thenUs #-}
+    {-# INLINE returnUs #-}
+
+See also the ``NOINLINE`` (:ref:`noinline-pragma`) and ``INLINABLE``
+(:ref:`inlinable-pragma`) pragmas.
+
+.. _inlinable-pragma:
+
+``INLINABLE`` pragma
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. pragma:: INLINABLE ⟨name⟩
+
+    :where: top-level
+
+    Suggest that the compiler always consider inlining ``name``.
+
+An ``{-# INLINABLE f #-}`` pragma on a function ``f`` has the following
+behaviour:
+
+-  While ``INLINE`` says "please inline me", the ``INLINABLE`` says
+   "feel free to inline me; use your discretion". In other words the
+   choice is left to GHC, which uses the same rules as for pragma-free
+   functions. Unlike ``INLINE``, that decision is made at the *call
+   site*, and will therefore be affected by the inlining threshold,
+   optimisation level etc.
+
+-  Like ``INLINE``, the ``INLINABLE`` pragma retains a copy of the
+   original RHS for inlining purposes, and persists it in the interface
+   file, regardless of the size of the RHS.
+
+-  One way to use ``INLINABLE`` is in conjunction with the special
+   function ``inline`` (:ref:`special-ids`). The call ``inline f`` tries
+   very hard to inline ``f``. To make sure that ``f`` can be inlined, it
+   is a good idea to mark the definition of ``f`` as ``INLINABLE``, so
+   that GHC guarantees to expose an unfolding regardless of how big it
+   is. Moreover, by annotating ``f`` as ``INLINABLE``, you ensure that
+   ``f``\'s original RHS is inlined, rather than whatever random
+   optimised version of ``f`` GHC's optimiser has produced.
+
+-  The ``INLINABLE`` pragma also works with ``SPECIALISE``: if you mark
+   function ``f`` as ``INLINABLE``, then you can subsequently
+   ``SPECIALISE`` in another module (see :ref:`specialize-pragma`).
+
+-  Unlike ``INLINE``, it is OK to use an ``INLINABLE`` pragma on a
+   recursive function. The principal reason do to so to allow later use
+   of ``SPECIALISE``
+
+The alternative spelling ``INLINEABLE`` is also accepted by GHC.
+
+.. _noinline-pragma:
+
+``NOINLINE`` pragma
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. index::
+   single: NOTINLINE
+
+.. pragma:: NOINLINE ⟨name⟩
+
+    :where: top-level
+
+    Instructs the compiler not to inline a value.
+
+The :pragma:`NOINLINE` pragma does exactly what you'd expect: it stops the
+named function from being inlined by the compiler. You shouldn't ever
+need to do this, unless you're very cautious about code size.
+
+``NOTINLINE`` is a synonym for ``NOINLINE`` (``NOINLINE`` is specified
+by Haskell 98 as the standard way to disable inlining, so it should be
+used if you want your code to be portable).
+
+.. _conlike-pragma:
+
+``CONLIKE`` modifier
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. pragma:: CONLIKE
+
+    :where: modifies :pragma:`INLINE` or :pragma:`NOINLINE` pragma
+
+    Instructs GHC to consider a value to be especially cheap to inline.
+
+An :pragma:`INLINE` or :pragma:`NOINLINE` pragma may have a :pragma:`CONLIKE` modifier, which affects
+matching in :pragma:`RULE <RULES>`\s (only). See :ref:`conlike`.
+
+.. _phase-control:
+
+Phase control
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Sometimes you want to control exactly when in GHC's pipeline the :pragma:`INLINE`
+pragma is switched on. Inlining happens only during runs of the
+*simplifier*. Each run of the simplifier has a different *phase number*;
+the phase number decreases towards zero. If you use
+:ghc-flag:`-dverbose-core2core` you will see the sequence of phase numbers for
+successive runs of the simplifier. In an :pragma:`INLINE` pragma you can
+optionally specify a phase number, thus:
+
+-  "``INLINE[k] f``" means: do not inline ``f`` until phase ``k``, but
+   from phase ``k`` onwards be very keen to inline it.
+
+-  "``INLINE[~k] f``" means: be very keen to inline ``f`` until phase
+   ``k``, but from phase ``k`` onwards do not inline it.
+
+-  "``NOINLINE[k] f``" means: do not inline ``f`` until phase ``k``, but
+   from phase ``k`` onwards be willing to inline it (as if there was no
+   pragma).
+
+-  "``NOINLINE[~k] f``" means: be willing to inline ``f`` until phase
+   ``k``, but from phase ``k`` onwards do not inline it.
+
+The same information is summarised here:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+                               -- Before phase 2     Phase 2 and later
+      {-# INLINE   [2]  f #-}  --      No                 Yes
+      {-# INLINE   [~2] f #-}  --      Yes                No
+      {-# NOINLINE [2]  f #-}  --      No                 Maybe
+      {-# NOINLINE [~2] f #-}  --      Maybe              No
+
+      {-# INLINE   f #-}       --      Yes                Yes
+      {-# NOINLINE f #-}       --      No                 No
+
+By "Maybe" we mean that the usual heuristic inlining rules apply (if the
+function body is small, or it is applied to interesting-looking
+arguments etc). Another way to understand the semantics is this:
+
+-  For both :pragma:`INLINE` and :pragma:`NOINLINE`, the phase number says when
+   inlining is allowed at all.
+
+-  The :pragma:`INLINE` pragma has the additional effect of making the function
+   body look small, so that when inlining is allowed it is very likely
+   to happen.
+
+The same phase-numbering control is available for :pragma:`RULE <RULES>`\s
+(:ref:`rewrite-rules`).
+
+.. _line-pragma:
+
+``LINE`` pragma
+---------------
+
+.. pragma:: LINE ⟨lineno⟩ "⟨file⟩"
+
+    :where: anywhere
+
+    Generated by preprocessors to convey source line numbers of the original
+    source.
+
+This pragma is similar to C's ``#line`` pragma, and is mainly for use in
+automatically generated Haskell code. It lets you specify the line
+number and filename of the original code; for example
+
+::
+
+    {-# LINE 42 "Foo.vhs" #-}
+
+if you'd generated the current file from something called ``Foo.vhs``
+and this line corresponds to line 42 in the original. GHC will adjust
+its error messages to refer to the line/file named in the ``LINE``
+pragma.
+
+``LINE`` pragmas generated from Template Haskell set the file and line
+position for the duration of the splice and are limited to the splice.
+Note that because Template Haskell splices abstract syntax, the file
+positions are not automatically advanced.
+
+.. _column-pragma:
+
+``COLUMN`` pragma
+-----------------
+
+.. index::
+   single: COLUMN; pragma
+   single: pragma; COLUMN
+
+This is the analogue of the ``LINE`` pragma and is likewise intended for
+use in automatically generated Haskell code. It lets you specify the
+column number of the original code; for example
+
+::
+
+    foo = do
+      {-# COLUMN 42 #-}pure ()
+      pure ()
+
+This adjusts all column numbers immediately after the pragma to start
+at 42.  The presence of this pragma only affects the quality of the
+diagnostics and does not change the syntax of the code itself.
+
+.. _rules:
+
+``RULES`` pragma
+----------------
+
+The :pragma:`RULES` pragma lets you specify rewrite rules. It is described in
+:ref:`rewrite-rules`.
+
+.. _specialize-pragma:
+
+``SPECIALIZE`` pragma
+---------------------
+
+.. index::
+   single: SPECIALIZE pragma
+   single: pragma, SPECIALIZE
+   single: overloading, death to
+
+.. pragma:: SPECIALIZE ⟨name⟩ :: ⟨type⟩
+
+    Ask that GHC specialize a polymorphic value to a particular type.
+
+(UK spelling also accepted.) For key overloaded functions, you can
+create extra versions (NB: at the cost of larger code) specialised to particular
+types. Thus, if you have an overloaded function:
+
+::
+
+      hammeredLookup :: Ord key => [(key, value)] -> key -> value
+
+If it is heavily used on lists with ``Widget`` keys, you could
+specialise it as follows:
+
+::
+
+      {-# SPECIALIZE hammeredLookup :: [(Widget, value)] -> Widget -> value #-}
+
+-  A ``SPECIALIZE`` pragma for a function can be put anywhere its type
+   signature could be put. Moreover, you can also ``SPECIALIZE`` an
+   *imported* function provided it was given an ``INLINABLE`` pragma at
+   its definition site (:ref:`inlinable-pragma`).
+
+-  A ``SPECIALIZE`` has the effect of generating (a) a specialised
+   version of the function and (b) a rewrite rule (see
+   :ref:`rewrite-rules`) that rewrites a call to the un-specialised
+   function into a call to the specialised one. Moreover, given a
+   ``SPECIALIZE`` pragma for a function ``f``, GHC will automatically
+   create specialisations for any type-class-overloaded functions called
+   by ``f``, if they are in the same module as the ``SPECIALIZE``
+   pragma, or if they are ``INLINABLE``; and so on, transitively.
+
+-  You can add phase control (:ref:`phase-control`) to the RULE
+   generated by a ``SPECIALIZE`` pragma, just as you can if you write a
+   ``RULE`` directly. For example:
+
+   ::
+
+         {-# SPECIALIZE [0] hammeredLookup :: [(Widget, value)] -> Widget -> value #-}
+
+   generates a specialisation rule that only fires in Phase 0 (the final
+   phase). If you do not specify any phase control in the ``SPECIALIZE``
+   pragma, the phase control is inherited from the inline pragma (if
+   any) of the function. For example:
+
+   ::
+
+         foo :: Num a => a -> a
+         foo = ...blah...
+         {-# NOINLINE [0] foo #-}
+         {-# SPECIALIZE foo :: Int -> Int #-}
+
+   The ``NOINLINE`` pragma tells GHC not to inline ``foo`` until Phase
+   0; and this property is inherited by the specialisation RULE, which
+   will therefore only fire in Phase 0.
+
+   The main reason for using phase control on specialisations is so that
+   you can write optimisation RULES that fire early in the compilation
+   pipeline, and only *then* specialise the calls to the function. If
+   specialisation is done too early, the optimisation rules might fail
+   to fire.
+
+-  The type in a ``SPECIALIZE`` pragma can be any type that is less
+   polymorphic than the type of the original function. In concrete
+   terms, if the original function is ``f`` then the pragma
+
+   ::
+
+         {-# SPECIALIZE f :: <type> #-}
+
+   is valid if and only if the definition
+
+   ::
+
+         f_spec :: <type>
+         f_spec = f
+
+   is valid. Here are some examples (where we only give the type
+   signature for the original function, not its code):
+
+   ::
+
+         f :: Eq a => a -> b -> b
+         {-# SPECIALISE f :: Int -> b -> b #-}
+
+         g :: (Eq a, Ix b) => a -> b -> b
+         {-# SPECIALISE g :: (Eq a) => a -> Int -> Int #-}
+
+         h :: Eq a => a -> a -> a
+         {-# SPECIALISE h :: (Eq a) => [a] -> [a] -> [a] #-}
+
+   The last of these examples will generate a RULE with a
+   somewhat-complex left-hand side (try it yourself), so it might not
+   fire very well. If you use this kind of specialisation, let us know
+   how well it works.
+
+.. _specialize-inline:
+
+``SPECIALIZE INLINE``
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. pragma:: SPECIALIZE INLINE ⟨name⟩ :: ⟨type⟩
+
+    :where: top-level
+
+A ``SPECIALIZE`` pragma can optionally be followed with a ``INLINE`` or
+``NOINLINE`` pragma, optionally followed by a phase, as described in
+:ref:`inline-noinline-pragma`. The ``INLINE`` pragma affects the
+specialised version of the function (only), and applies even if the
+function is recursive. The motivating example is this: ::
+
+    -- A GADT for arrays with type-indexed representation
+    data Arr e where
+      ArrInt :: !Int -> ByteArray# -> Arr Int
+      ArrPair :: !Int -> Arr e1 -> Arr e2 -> Arr (e1, e2)
+
+    (!:) :: Arr e -> Int -> e
+    {-# SPECIALISE INLINE (!:) :: Arr Int -> Int -> Int #-}
+    {-# SPECIALISE INLINE (!:) :: Arr (a, b) -> Int -> (a, b) #-}
+    (ArrInt _ ba)     !: (I# i) = I# (indexIntArray# ba i)
+    (ArrPair _ a1 a2) !: i      = (a1 !: i, a2 !: i)
+
+Here, ``(!:)`` is a recursive function that indexes arrays of type
+``Arr e``. Consider a call to ``(!:)`` at type ``(Int,Int)``. The second
+specialisation will fire, and the specialised function will be inlined.
+It has two calls to ``(!:)``, both at type ``Int``. Both these calls
+fire the first specialisation, whose body is also inlined. The result is
+a type-based unrolling of the indexing function.
+
+You can add explicit phase control (:ref:`phase-control`) to
+``SPECIALISE INLINE`` pragma, just like on an :pragma:`INLINE` pragma; if
+you do so, the same phase is used for the rewrite rule and the INLINE control
+of the specialised function.
+
+.. warning:: You can make GHC diverge by using ``SPECIALISE INLINE`` on an
+             ordinarily-recursive function.
+
+``SPECIALIZE`` for imported functions
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Generally, you can only give a :pragma:`SPECIALIZE` pragma for a function
+defined in the same module. However if a function ``f`` is given an
+:pragma:`INLINABLE` pragma at its definition site, then it can subsequently be
+specialised by importing modules (see :ref:`inlinable-pragma`). For example ::
+
+    module Map( lookup, blah blah ) where
+      lookup :: Ord key => [(key,a)] -> key -> Maybe a
+      lookup = ...
+      {-# INLINABLE lookup #-}
+
+    module Client where
+      import Map( lookup )
+
+      data T = T1 | T2 deriving( Eq, Ord )
+      {-# SPECIALISE lookup :: [(T,a)] -> T -> Maybe a
+
+Here, ``lookup`` is declared :pragma:`INLINABLE`, but it cannot be specialised
+for type ``T`` at its definition site, because that type does not exist
+yet. Instead a client module can define ``T`` and then specialise
+``lookup`` at that type.
+
+Moreover, every module that imports ``Client`` (or imports a module that
+imports ``Client``, transitively) will "see", and make use of, the
+specialised version of ``lookup``. You don't need to put a
+:pragma:`SPECIALIZE` pragma in every module.
+
+Moreover you often don't even need the :pragma:`SPECIALIZE` pragma in the
+first place. When compiling a module ``M``, GHC's optimiser (when given the
+:ghc-flag:`-O` flag) automatically considers each top-level overloaded function declared
+in ``M``, and specialises it for the different types at which it is called in
+``M``. The optimiser *also* considers each *imported* :pragma:`INLINABLE`
+overloaded function, and specialises it for the different types at which
+it is called in ``M``. So in our example, it would be enough for ``lookup``
+to be called at type ``T``:
+
+::
+
+    module Client where
+      import Map( lookup )
+
+      data T = T1 | T2 deriving( Eq, Ord )
+
+      findT1 :: [(T,a)] -> Maybe a
+      findT1 m = lookup m T1   -- A call of lookup at type T
+
+However, sometimes there are no such calls, in which case the pragma can
+be useful.
+
+.. _specialize-instance-pragma:
+
+``SPECIALIZE`` instance pragma
+------------------------------
+
+.. index::
+   single: instance, specializing
+   single: overloading, death to
+
+.. pragma:: SPECIALIZE instance ⟨instance head⟩
+
+   :where: instance body
+
+Same idea, except for instance declarations. For example:
+
+::
+
+    instance (Eq a) => Eq (Foo a) where {
+       {-# SPECIALIZE instance Eq (Foo [(Int, Bar)]) #-}
+       ... usual stuff ...
+     }
+
+The pragma must occur inside the ``where`` part of the instance
+declaration.
+
+.. _unpack-pragma:
+
+``UNPACK`` pragma
+-----------------
+
+.. pragma:: UNPACK
+
+    :where: data constructor field
+
+    Instructs the compiler to unpack the contents of a constructor field into
+    the constructor itself.
+
+The ``UNPACK`` indicates to the compiler that it should unpack the
+contents of a constructor field into the constructor itself, removing a
+level of indirection. For example: ::
+
+    data T = T {-# UNPACK #-} !Float
+               {-# UNPACK #-} !Float
+
+will create a constructor ``T`` containing two unboxed floats. This may
+not always be an optimisation: if the ``T`` constructor is scrutinised
+and the floats passed to a non-strict function for example, they will
+have to be reboxed (this is done automatically by the compiler).
+
+Unpacking constructor fields should only be used in conjunction with
+:ghc-flag:`-O` [1]_, in order to expose unfoldings to the compiler so the
+reboxing can be removed as often as possible. For example: ::
+
+    f :: T -> Float
+    f (T f1 f2) = f1 + f2
+
+The compiler will avoid reboxing ``f1`` and ``f2`` by inlining ``+`` on
+floats, but only when :ghc-flag:`-O` is on.
+
+Any single-constructor data is eligible for unpacking; for example ::
+
+    data T = T {-# UNPACK #-} !(Int,Int)
+
+will store the two ``Int``\ s directly in the ``T`` constructor, by
+flattening the pair. Multi-level unpacking is also supported: ::
+
+    data T = T {-# UNPACK #-} !S
+    data S = S {-# UNPACK #-} !Int {-# UNPACK #-} !Int
+
+will store two unboxed ``Int#``\ s directly in the ``T`` constructor.
+The unpacker can see through newtypes, too.
+
+See also the :ghc-flag:`-funbox-strict-fields` flag, which essentially has the
+effect of adding ``{-# UNPACK #-}`` to every strict constructor field.
+
+.. [1]
+   In fact, :pragma:`UNPACK` has no effect without :ghc-flag:`-O`, for technical
+   reasons (see :ghc-ticket:`5252`).
+
+.. _nounpack-pragma:
+
+``NOUNPACK`` pragma
+-------------------
+
+.. pragma:: NOUNPACK
+
+    :where: top-level
+
+    Instructs the compiler not to unpack a constructor field.
+
+The ``NOUNPACK`` pragma indicates to the compiler that it should not
+unpack the contents of a constructor field. Example: ::
+
+    data T = T {-# NOUNPACK #-} !(Int,Int)
+
+Even with the flags :ghc-flag:`-funbox-strict-fields` and :ghc-flag:`-O`, the
+field of the constructor ``T`` is not unpacked.
+
+.. _source-pragma:
+
+``SOURCE`` pragma
+-----------------
+
+.. pragma:: SOURCE
+
+    :where: after ``import`` statement
+
+    Import a module by ``hs-boot`` file to break a module loop.
+
+The ``{-# SOURCE #-}`` pragma is used only in ``import`` declarations,
+to break a module loop. It is described in detail in
+:ref:`mutual-recursion`.
+
+.. _complete-pragma:
+
+``COMPLETE`` pragmas
+--------------------
+
+.. pragma:: COMPLETE
+
+    :where: at top level
+
+    Specify the set of constructors or pattern synonyms which constitute a total
+    match.
+
+The ``COMPLETE`` pragma is used to inform the pattern match checker that a
+certain set of patterns is complete and that any function which matches
+on all the specified patterns is total.
+
+The most common usage of ``COMPLETE`` pragmas is with
+:ref:`pattern-synonyms`.
+On its own, the checker is very naive and assumes that any match involving
+a pattern synonym will fail. As a result, any pattern match on a
+pattern synonym is regarded as
+incomplete unless the user adds a catch-all case.
+
+For example, the data types ``2 * A`` and ``A + A`` are isomorphic but some
+computations are more naturally expressed in terms of one or the other. To
+get the best of both worlds, we can choose one as our implementation and then
+provide a set of pattern synonyms so that users can use the other representation
+if they desire. We can then specify a ``COMPLETE`` pragma in order to
+inform the pattern match checker that a function which matches on both ``LeftChoice``
+and ``RightChoice`` is total. ::
+
+    data Choice a = Choice Bool a
+
+    pattern LeftChoice :: a -> Choice a
+    pattern LeftChoice a = Choice False a
+
+    pattern RightChoice :: a -> Choice a
+    pattern RightChoice a = Choice True a
+
+    {-# COMPLETE LeftChoice, RightChoice #-}
+
+    foo :: Choice Int -> Int
+    foo (LeftChoice n) = n * 2
+    foo (RightChoice n) = n - 2
+
+``COMPLETE`` pragmas are only used by the pattern match checker. If a function
+definition matches on all the constructors specified in the pragma then the
+compiler will produce no warning.
+
+``COMPLETE`` pragmas can contain any data constructors or pattern
+synonyms which are in scope, but must mention at least one data
+constructor or pattern synonym defined in the same module.
+``COMPLETE`` pragmas may only appear at the top level of a module.
+Once defined, they are automatically imported and exported from
+modules. ``COMPLETE`` pragmas should be thought of as asserting a
+universal truth about a set of patterns and as a result, should not be
+used to silence context specific incomplete match warnings.
+
+When specifying a ``COMPLETE`` pragma, the result types of all patterns must
+be consistent with each other. This is a sanity check as it would be impossible
+to match on all the patterns if the types were inconsistent.
+
+The result type must also be unambiguous. Usually this can be inferred but
+when all the pattern synonyms in a group are polymorphic in the constructor
+the user must provide a type signature. ::
+
+    class LL f where
+      go :: f a -> ()
+
+    instance LL [] where
+      go _ = ()
+
+    pattern T :: LL f => f a
+    pattern T <- (go -> ())
+
+    {-# COMPLETE T :: [] #-}
+
+    -- No warning
+    foo :: [a] -> Int
+    foo T = 5
+
+.. _overlap-pragma:
+
+``OVERLAPPING``, ``OVERLAPPABLE``, ``OVERLAPS``, and ``INCOHERENT`` pragmas
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+.. index::
+   single: OVERLAPPING
+   single: pragma; OVERLAPPING
+   single: OVERLAPPABLE
+   single: pragma; OVERLAPPABLE
+   single: OVERLAPS
+   single: pragma; OVERLAPS
+   single: INCOHERENT
+   single: pragma; INCOHERENT
+
+.. pragma:: OVERLAPPING
+.. pragma:: OVERLAPPABLE
+.. pragma:: OVERLAPS
+.. pragma:: INCOHERENT
+
+    :where: on instance head
+
+The pragmas ``OVERLAPPING``, ``OVERLAPPABLE``, ``OVERLAPS``,
+``INCOHERENT`` are used to specify the overlap behavior for individual
+instances, as described in Section :ref:`instance-overlap`. The pragmas
+are written immediately after the ``instance`` keyword, like this:
+
+::
+
+    instance {-# OVERLAPPING #-} C t where ...
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/primitives.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/primitives.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1995646
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/primitives.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,371 @@
+.. _primitives:
+
+Unboxed types and primitive operations
+======================================
+
+GHC is built on a raft of primitive data types and operations;
+"primitive" in the sense that they cannot be defined in Haskell itself.
+While you really can use this stuff to write fast code, we generally
+find it a lot less painful, and more satisfying in the long run, to use
+higher-level language features and libraries. With any luck, the code
+you write will be optimised to the efficient unboxed version in any
+case. And if it isn't, we'd like to know about it.
+
+All these primitive data types and operations are exported by the
+library ``GHC.Prim``, for which there is
+:ghc-prim-ref:`detailed online documentation <GHC.Prim.>`. (This
+documentation is generated from the file ``compiler/prelude/primops.txt.pp``.)
+
+If you want to mention any of the primitive data types or operations in
+your program, you must first import ``GHC.Prim`` to bring them into
+scope. Many of them have names ending in ``#``, and to mention such names
+you need the :extension:`MagicHash` extension.
+
+The primops make extensive use of `unboxed types <#glasgow-unboxed>`__
+and `unboxed tuples <#unboxed-tuples>`__, which we briefly summarise
+here.
+
+.. _glasgow-unboxed:
+
+Unboxed types
+-------------
+
+Most types in GHC are boxed, which means that values of that type are
+represented by a pointer to a heap object. The representation of a
+Haskell ``Int``, for example, is a two-word heap object. An unboxed
+type, however, is represented by the value itself, no pointers or heap
+allocation are involved.
+
+Unboxed types correspond to the “raw machine” types you would use in C:
+``Int#`` (long int), ``Double#`` (double), ``Addr#`` (void \*), etc. The
+*primitive operations* (PrimOps) on these types are what you might
+expect; e.g., ``(+#)`` is addition on ``Int#``\ s, and is the
+machine-addition that we all know and love—usually one instruction.
+
+Primitive (unboxed) types cannot be defined in Haskell, and are
+therefore built into the language and compiler. Primitive types are
+always unlifted; that is, a value of a primitive type cannot be bottom.
+(Note: a "boxed" type means that a value is represented by a pointer to a heap
+object; a "lifted" type means that terms of that type may be bottom. See
+the next paragraph for an example.)
+We use the convention (but it is only a convention) that primitive
+types, values, and operations have a ``#`` suffix (see
+:ref:`magic-hash`). For some primitive types we have special syntax for
+literals, also described in the `same section <#magic-hash>`__.
+
+Primitive values are often represented by a simple bit-pattern, such as
+``Int#``, ``Float#``, ``Double#``. But this is not necessarily the case:
+a primitive value might be represented by a pointer to a heap-allocated
+object. Examples include ``Array#``, the type of primitive arrays. Thus,
+``Array#`` is an unlifted, boxed type. A
+primitive array is heap-allocated because it is too big a value to fit
+in a register, and would be too expensive to copy around; in a sense, it
+is accidental that it is represented by a pointer. If a pointer
+represents a primitive value, then it really does point to that value:
+no unevaluated thunks, no indirections. Nothing can be at the other end
+of the pointer than the primitive value. A numerically-intensive program
+using unboxed types can go a *lot* faster than its “standard”
+counterpart—we saw a threefold speedup on one example.
+
+Unboxed type kinds
+------------------
+
+Because unboxed types are represented without the use of pointers, we
+cannot store them in use a polymorphic datatype at an unboxed type.
+For example, the ``Just`` node
+of ``Just 42#`` would have to be different from the ``Just`` node of
+``Just 42``; the former stores an integer directly, while the latter
+stores a pointer. GHC currently does not support this variety of ``Just``
+nodes (nor for any other datatype). Accordingly, the *kind* of an unboxed
+type is different from the kind of a boxed type.
+
+The Haskell Report describes that ``*`` (spelled ``Type`` and imported from
+``Data.Kind`` in the GHC dialect of Haskell) is the kind of ordinary datatypes,
+such as ``Int``. Furthermore, type constructors can have kinds with arrows; for
+example, ``Maybe`` has kind ``Type -> Type``. Unboxed types have a kind that
+specifies their runtime representation. For example, the type ``Int#`` has kind
+``TYPE 'IntRep`` and ``Double#`` has kind ``TYPE 'DoubleRep``. These kinds say
+that the runtime representation of an ``Int#`` is a machine integer, and the
+runtime representation of a ``Double#`` is a machine double-precision floating
+point. In contrast, the kind ``Type`` is actually just a synonym for ``TYPE
+'LiftedRep``. More details of the ``TYPE`` mechanisms appear in the `section
+on runtime representation polymorphism <#runtime-rep>`__.
+
+Given that ``Int#``'s kind is not ``Type``, it then it follows that ``Maybe
+Int#`` is disallowed. Similarly, because type variables tend to be of kind
+``Type`` (for example, in ``(.) :: (b -> c) -> (a -> b) -> a -> c``, all the
+type variables have kind ``Type``), polymorphism tends not to work over
+primitive types. Stepping back, this makes some sense, because a polymorphic
+function needs to manipulate the pointers to its data, and most primitive types
+are unboxed.
+
+There are some restrictions on the use of primitive types:
+
+-  You cannot define a newtype whose representation type (the argument
+   type of the data constructor) is an unboxed type. Thus, this is
+   illegal:
+
+   ::
+
+         newtype A = MkA Int#
+
+   However, this restriction can be relaxed by enabling
+   :extension:`UnliftedNewtypes`.  The `section on unlifted newtypes
+   <#unlifted-newtypes>`__ details the behavior of such types.
+
+-  You cannot bind a variable with an unboxed type in a *top-level*
+   binding.
+
+-  You cannot bind a variable with an unboxed type in a *recursive*
+   binding.
+
+-  You may bind unboxed variables in a (non-recursive, non-top-level)
+   pattern binding, but you must make any such pattern-match strict.
+   (Failing to do so emits a warning :ghc-flag:`-Wunbanged-strict-patterns`.)
+   For example, rather than:
+
+   ::
+
+         data Foo = Foo Int Int#
+
+         f x = let (Foo a b, w) = ..rhs.. in ..body..
+
+   you must write:
+
+   ::
+
+         data Foo = Foo Int Int#
+
+         f x = let !(Foo a b, w) = ..rhs.. in ..body..
+
+   since ``b`` has type ``Int#``.
+
+.. _unboxed-tuples:
+
+Unboxed tuples
+--------------
+
+.. extension:: UnboxedTuples
+    :shortdesc: Enable the use of unboxed tuple syntax.
+
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+
+Unboxed tuples aren't really exported by ``GHC.Exts``; they are a
+syntactic extension (:extension:`UnboxedTuples`). An
+unboxed tuple looks like this: ::
+
+    (# e_1, ..., e_n #)
+
+where ``e_1..e_n`` are expressions of any type (primitive or
+non-primitive). The type of an unboxed tuple looks the same.
+
+Note that when unboxed tuples are enabled, ``(#`` is a single lexeme, so
+for example when using operators like ``#`` and ``#-`` you need to write
+``( # )`` and ``( #- )`` rather than ``(#)`` and ``(#-)``.
+
+Unboxed tuples are used for functions that need to return multiple
+values, but they avoid the heap allocation normally associated with
+using fully-fledged tuples. When an unboxed tuple is returned, the
+components are put directly into registers or on the stack; the unboxed
+tuple itself does not have a composite representation. Many of the
+primitive operations listed in ``primops.txt.pp`` return unboxed tuples.
+In particular, the ``IO`` and ``ST`` monads use unboxed tuples to avoid
+unnecessary allocation during sequences of operations.
+
+There are some restrictions on the use of unboxed tuples:
+
+-  The typical use of unboxed tuples is simply to return multiple
+   values, binding those multiple results with a ``case`` expression,
+   thus:
+
+   ::
+
+         f x y = (# x+1, y-1 #)
+         g x = case f x x of { (# a, b #) -> a + b }
+
+   You can have an unboxed tuple in a pattern binding, thus
+
+   ::
+
+         f x = let (# p,q #) = h x in ..body..
+
+   If the types of ``p`` and ``q`` are not unboxed, the resulting
+   binding is lazy like any other Haskell pattern binding. The above
+   example desugars like this:
+
+   ::
+
+         f x = let t = case h x of { (# p,q #) -> (p,q) }
+                   p = fst t
+                   q = snd t
+               in ..body..
+
+   Indeed, the bindings can even be recursive.
+
+.. _unboxed-sums:
+
+Unboxed sums
+------------
+
+.. extension:: UnboxedSums
+    :shortdesc: Enable unboxed sums.
+
+    :since: 8.2.1
+
+    Enable the use of unboxed sum syntax.
+
+`-XUnboxedSums` enables new syntax for anonymous, unboxed sum types. The syntax
+for an unboxed sum type with N alternatives is ::
+
+    (# t_1 | t_2 | ... | t_N #)
+
+where ``t_1`` ... ``t_N`` are types (which can be unlifted, including unboxed
+tuples and sums).
+
+Unboxed tuples can be used for multi-arity alternatives. For example: ::
+
+    (# (# Int, String #) | Bool #)
+
+The term level syntax is similar. Leading and preceding bars (`|`) indicate which
+alternative it is. Here are two terms of the type shown above: ::
+
+    (# (# 1, "foo" #) | #) -- first alternative
+
+    (# | True #) -- second alternative
+
+The pattern syntax reflects the term syntax: ::
+
+    case x of
+      (# (# i, str #) | #) -> ...
+      (# | bool #) -> ...
+
+Unboxed sums are "unboxed" in the sense that, instead of allocating sums in the
+heap and representing values as pointers, unboxed sums are represented as their
+components, just like unboxed tuples. These "components" depend on alternatives
+of a sum type. Like unboxed tuples, unboxed sums are lazy in their lifted
+components.
+
+The code generator tries to generate as compact layout as possible for each
+unboxed sum. In the best case, size of an unboxed sum is size of its biggest
+alternative plus one word (for a tag). The algorithm for generating the memory
+layout for a sum type works like this:
+
+- All types are classified as one of these classes: 32bit word, 64bit word,
+  32bit float, 64bit float, pointer.
+
+- For each alternative of the sum type, a layout that consists of these fields
+  is generated. For example, if an alternative has ``Int``, ``Float#`` and
+  ``String`` fields, the layout will have an 32bit word, 32bit float and
+  pointer fields.
+
+- Layout fields are then overlapped so that the final layout will be as compact
+  as possible. For example, suppose we have the unboxed sum: ::
+
+    (# (# Word32#, String, Float# #)
+    |  (# Float#, Float#, Maybe Int #) #)
+
+  The final layout will be something like ::
+
+    Int32, Float32, Float32, Word32, Pointer
+
+  The first ``Int32`` is for the tag. There are two ``Float32`` fields because
+  floating point types can't overlap with other types, because of limitations of
+  the code generator that we're hoping to overcome in the future. The second
+  alternative needs two ``Float32`` fields: The ``Word32`` field is for the
+  ``Word32#`` in the first alternative. The ``Pointer`` field is shared between
+  ``String`` and ``Maybe Int`` values of the alternatives.
+
+  As another example, this is the layout for the unboxed version of ``Maybe a``
+  type, ``(# (# #) | a #)``: ::
+
+    Int32, Pointer
+
+  The ``Pointer`` field is not used when tag says that it's ``Nothing``.
+  Otherwise ``Pointer`` points to the value in ``Just``. As mentioned
+  above, this type is lazy in its lifted field. Therefore, the type ::
+
+    data Maybe' a = Maybe' (# (# #) | a #)
+
+  is *precisely* isomorphic to the type ``Maybe a``, although its memory
+  representation is different.
+
+  In the degenerate case where all the alternatives have zero width, such
+  as the ``Bool``-like ``(# (# #) | (# #) #)``, the unboxed sum layout only
+  has an ``Int32`` tag field (i.e., the whole thing is represented by an integer).
+
+.. _unlifted-newtypes:
+
+Unlifted Newtypes
+-----------------
+
+.. extension:: UnliftedNewtypes
+    :shortdesc: Enable unlifted newtypes.
+
+    :since: 8.10.1
+
+    Enable the use of newtypes over types with non-lifted runtime representations.
+
+GHC implements an :extension:`UnliftedNewtypes` extension as specified in
+`this GHC proposal <https://github.com/ghc-proposals/ghc-proposals/blob/master/proposals/0013-unlifted-newtypes.rst>`_.
+:extension:`UnliftedNewtypes` relaxes the restrictions around what types can appear inside
+of a `newtype`. For example, the type ::
+
+    newtype A = MkA Int#
+
+is accepted when this extension is enabled. This creates a type
+``A :: TYPE 'IntRep`` and a data constructor ``MkA :: Int# -> A``.
+Although the kind of ``A`` is inferred by GHC, there is nothing visually
+distictive about this type that indicated that is it not of kind ``Type``
+like newtypes typically are. `GADTSyntax <#gadt-style>`__ can be used to
+provide a kind signature for additional clarity ::
+
+    newtype A :: TYPE 'IntRep where
+      MkA :: Int# -> A
+
+The ``Coercible`` machinery works with unlifted newtypes just like it does with
+lifted types. In either of the equivalent formulations of ``A`` given above,
+users would additionally have access to a coercion between ``A`` and ``Int#``.
+
+As a consequence of the
+`levity-polymorphic binder restriction <#levity-polymorphic-restrictions>`__,
+levity-polymorphic fields are disallowed in data constructors
+of data types declared using ``data``. However, since ``newtype`` data
+constructor application is implemented as a coercion instead of as function
+application, this restriction does not apply to the field inside a ``newtype``
+data constructor. Thus, the type checker accepts ::
+
+    newtype Identity# :: forall (r :: RuntimeRep). TYPE r -> TYPE r where
+      MkIdentity# :: forall (r :: RuntimeRep) (a :: TYPE r). a -> Identity# a
+
+And with `UnboxedSums <#unboxed-sums>`__ enabled ::
+
+    newtype Maybe# :: forall (r :: RuntimeRep). TYPE r -> TYPE (SumRep '[r, TupleRep '[]]) where
+      MkMaybe# :: forall (r :: RuntimeRep) (a :: TYPE r). (# a | (# #) #) -> Maybe# a
+
+This extension also relaxes some of the restrictions around data family
+instances. In particular, :extension:`UnliftedNewtypes` permits a
+``newtype instance`` to be given a return kind of ``TYPE r``, not just
+``Type``. For example, the following ``newtype instance`` declarations would be
+permitted: ::
+
+     class Foo a where
+       data FooKey a :: TYPE 'IntRep
+     class Bar (r :: RuntimeRep) where
+       data BarType r :: TYPE r
+
+     instance Foo Bool where
+       newtype FooKey Bool = FooKeyBoolC Int#
+     instance Bar 'WordRep where
+       newtype BarType 'WordRep = BarTypeWordRepC Word#
+
+It is worth noting that :extension:`UnliftedNewtypes` is *not* required to give
+the data families themselves return kinds involving ``TYPE``, such as the
+``FooKey`` and ``BarType`` examples above. The extension is
+only required for ``newtype instance`` declarations, such as ``FooKeyBoolC``
+and ``BarTypeWorkRepC`` above.
+
+This extension impacts the determination of whether or not a newtype has
+a Complete User-Specified Kind Signature (CUSK). The exact impact is specified
+`the section on CUSKs <#complete-kind-signatures>`__.
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/quantified_constraints.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/quantified_constraints.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..717da9e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/quantified_constraints.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,263 @@
+.. _quantified-constraints:
+
+Quantified constraints
+======================
+
+.. extension:: QuantifiedConstraints
+    :shortdesc: Allow ``forall`` quantifiers in constraints.
+
+    :since: 8.6.1
+
+    Allow constraints to quantify over types.
+
+The extension :extension:`QuantifiedConstraints` introduces **quantified constraints**,
+which give a new level of expressiveness in constraints. For example, consider ::
+
+ data Rose f a = Branch a (f (Rose f a))
+
+ instance (Eq a, ???) => Eq (Rose f a)
+   where
+     (Branch x1 c1) == (Branch x2 c2)
+        = x1==x1 && c1==c2
+
+From the ``x1==x2`` we need ``Eq a``, which is fine.  From ``c1==c2`` we need ``Eq (f (Rose f a))`` which
+is *not* fine in Haskell today; we have no way to solve such a constraint.
+
+:extension:`QuantifiedConstraints` lets us write this ::
+
+ instance (Eq a, forall b. (Eq b) => Eq (f b))
+        => Eq (Rose f a)
+   where
+     (Branch x1 c1) == (Branch x2 c2)
+        = x1==x1 && c1==c2
+
+Here, the quantified constraint ``forall b. (Eq b) => Eq (f b)`` behaves
+a bit like a local instance declaration, and makes the instance typeable.
+
+The paper `Quantified class constraints
+<https://homepages.inf.ed.ac.uk/wadler/papers/quantcc/quantcc.pdf>`_ (by Bottu, Karachalias,
+Schrijvers, Oliveira, Wadler, Haskell Symposium 2017) describes this feature in
+technical detail, with examples, and so is a primary reference source for this
+feature.
+
+Motivation
+----------------
+Introducing quantified constraints offers two main benefits:
+
+- Firstly, they enable terminating resolution where this was not possible before.  Consider for instance the following instance declaration for the general rose datatype ::
+
+   data Rose f x = Rose x (f (Rose f x))
+
+   instance (Eq a, forall b. Eq b => Eq (f b)) => Eq (Rose f a) where
+     (Rose x1 rs1) == (Rose x2 rs2) = x1 == x2 && rs1 == rs2
+
+  This extension allows us to write constraints of the form ``forall b. Eq b =>
+  Eq (f b)``, which is needed to solve the ``Eq (f (Rose f x))`` constraint
+  arising from the second usage of the ``(==)`` method.
+
+- Secondly, quantified constraints allow for more concise and precise specifications. As an example, consider the MTL type class for monad transformers::
+
+   class Trans t where
+     lift :: Monad m => m a -> (t m) a
+
+  The developer knows that a monad transformer takes a monad ``m`` into a new monad ``t m``.
+  But this property is not formally specified in the above declaration.
+  This omission becomes an issue when defining monad transformer composition::
+
+    newtype (t1 * t2) m a = C { runC :: t1 (t2 m) a }
+
+    instance (Trans t1, Trans t2) => Trans (t1 * t2) where
+      lift = C . lift . lift
+
+  The goal here is to ``lift`` from monad ``m`` to ``t2 m`` and
+  then ``lift`` this again into ``t1 (t2 m)``.
+  However, this second ``lift`` can only be accepted when ``(t2 m)`` is a monad
+  and there is no way of establishing that this fact universally holds.
+
+  Quantified constraints enable this property to be made explicit in the ``Trans``
+  class declaration::
+
+    class (forall m. Monad m => Monad (t m)) => Trans t where
+      lift :: Monad m => m a -> (t m) a
+
+This idea is very old; see Section 7 of `Derivable type classes <https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/publication/derivable-type-classes/>`_.
+
+Syntax changes
+----------------
+
+`Haskell 2010 <https://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/haskell2010/haskellch10.html#x17-18000010.5>`_ defines a ``context`` (the bit to the left of ``=>`` in a type) like this
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    context ::= class
+            |   ( class1, ..., classn )
+
+    class ::= qtycls tyvar
+            |  qtycls (tyvar atype1 ... atypen)
+
+We to extend ``class`` (warning: this is a rather confusingly named non-terminal symbol) with two extra forms, namely precisely what can appear in an instance declaration
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    class ::= ...
+          | [context =>] qtycls inst
+          | [context =>] tyvar inst
+
+The definition of ``inst`` is unchanged from the Haskell Report (roughly, just a type).
+The ``context =>`` part is optional.  That is the only syntactic change to the language.
+
+Notes:
+
+- Where GHC allows extensions instance declarations we allow exactly the same extensions to this new form of ``class``.  Specifically, with :extension:`ExplicitForAll` and :extension:`MultiParamTypeClasses` the syntax becomes
+
+  .. code-block:: none
+
+    class ::= ...
+           | [forall tyavrs .] [context =>] qtycls inst1 ... instn
+           | [forall tyavrs .] [context =>] tyvar inst1 ... instn
+
+  Note that an explicit ``forall`` is often absolutely essential. Consider the rose-tree example ::
+
+    instance (Eq a, forall b. Eq b => Eq (f b)) => Eq (Rose f a) where ...
+
+  Without the ``forall b``, the type variable ``b`` would be quantified over the whole instance declaration, which is not what is intended.
+
+- One of these new quantified constraints can appear anywhere that any other constraint can, not just in instance declarations.  Notably, it can appear in a type signature for a value binding, data constructor, or expression.  For example ::
+
+   f :: (Eq a, forall b. Eq b => Eq (f b)) => Rose f a -> Rose f a -> Bool
+   f t1 t2 = not (t1 == t2)
+
+- The form with a type variable at the head allows this::
+
+   instance (forall xx. c (Free c xx)) => Monad (Free c) where
+       Free f >>= g = f g
+
+  See `Iceland Jack's summary <https://gitlab.haskell.org/ghc/ghc/issues/14733#note_148352>`_.  The key point is that the bit to the right of the ``=>`` may be headed by a type *variable* (``c`` in this case), rather than a class.  It should not be one of the forall'd variables, though.
+
+  (NB: this goes beyond what is described in `the paper <http://i.cs.hku.hk/~bruno//papers/hs2017.pdf>`_, but does not seem to introduce any new technical difficulties.)
+
+
+Typing changes
+----------------
+
+See `the paper <http://i.cs.hku.hk/~bruno//papers/hs2017.pdf>`_.
+
+Superclasses
+----------------
+
+Suppose we have::
+
+     f :: forall m. (forall a. Ord a => Ord (m a)) => m Int -> Bool
+     f x = x == x
+
+From the ``x==x`` we need an ``Eq (m Int)`` constraint, but the context only gives us a way to figure out ``Ord (m a)`` constraints.  But from the given constraint ``forall a. Ord a => Ord (m a)`` we derive a second given constraint ``forall a. Ord a => Eq (m a)``, and from that we can readily solve ``Eq (m Int)``.  This process is very similar to the way that superclasses already work: given an ``Ord a`` constraint we derive a second given ``Eq a`` constraint.
+
+NB: This treatment of superclasses goes beyond `the paper <http://i.cs.hku.hk/~bruno//papers/hs2017.pdf>`_, but is specifically desired by users.
+
+Overlap
+-------------
+
+Quantified constraints can potentially lead to overlapping local axioms.
+Consider for instance the following example::
+
+ class A a where {}
+ class B a where {}
+ class C a where {}
+ class (A a => C a) => D a where {}
+ class (B a => C a) => E a where {}
+
+ class C a => F a where {}
+ instance (B a, D a, E a) => F a where {}
+
+When type checking the instance declaration for ``F a``,
+we need to check that the superclass ``C`` of ``F`` holds.
+We thus try to entail the constraint ``C a`` under the theory containing:
+
+- The instance axioms : ``(B a, D a, E a) => F a``
+- The local axioms from the instance context : ``B a``, ``D a`` and ``E a``
+- The closure of the superclass relation over these local axioms : ``A a => C a`` and ``B a => C a``
+
+However, the ``A a => C a`` and ``B a => C a`` axioms both match the wanted constraint ``C a``.
+There are several possible approaches for handling these overlapping local axioms:
+
+- **Pick first**.  We can simply select the **first matching axiom** we encounter.
+  In the above example, this would be ``A a => C a``.
+  We'd then need to entail ``A a``, for which we have no matching axioms available, causing the above program to be rejected.
+
+  But suppose we made a slight adjustment to the order of the instance context, putting ``E a`` before ``D a``::
+
+   instance (B a, E a, D a) => F a where {}
+
+  The first matching axiom we encounter while entailing ``C a``, is ``B a => C a``.
+  We have a local axiom ``B a`` available, so now the program is suddenly accepted.
+  This behaviour, where the ordering of an instance context determines
+  whether or not the program is accepted, seems rather confusing for the developer.
+
+- **Reject if in doubt**.  An alternative approach would be to check for overlapping axioms,
+  when solving a constraint.
+  When multiple matching axioms are discovered, we **reject the program**.
+  This approach is a bit conservative, in that it may reject working programs.
+  But it seem much more transparent towards the developer, who
+  can be presented with a clear message, explaining why the program is rejected.
+
+- **Backtracking**.  Lastly, a simple form of **backtracking** could be introduced.
+  We simply select the first matching axiom we encounter and when the entailment fails,
+  we backtrack and look for other axioms that might match the wanted constraint.
+
+  This seems the most intuitive and transparent approach towards the developer,
+  who no longer needs to concern himself with the fact that his code might contain
+  overlapping axioms or with the ordering of his instance contexts.  But backtracking
+  would apply equally to ordinary instance selection (in the presence of overlapping
+  instances), so it is a much more pervasive change, with substantial consequences
+  for the type inference engine.
+
+GHC adopts **Reject if in doubt** for now.  We can see how painful it
+is in practice, and try something more ambitious if necessary.
+
+Instance lookup
+-------------------
+
+In the light of the overlap decision, instance lookup works like this when
+trying to solve a class constraint ``C t``
+
+1. First see if there is a given un-quantified constraint ``C t``.  If so, use it to solve the constraint.
+
+2. If not, look at all the available given quantified constraints; if exactly one one matches ``C t``, choose it; if more than one matches, report an error.
+
+3. If no quantified constraints match, look up in the global instances, as described in :ref:`instance-resolution` and :ref:`instance-overlap`.
+
+Termination
+---------------
+
+GHC uses the :ref:`Paterson Conditions <instance-termination>` to ensure
+that instance resolution terminates. How are those rules modified for quantified
+constraints? In two ways.
+
+- Each quantified constraint, taken by itself, must satisfy the termination rules for an instance declaration.
+
+- After "for each class constraint ``(C t1 ... tn)``", add "or each quantified constraint ``(forall as. context => C t1 .. tn)``"
+
+Note that the second item only at the *head* of the quantified constraint, not its context.  Reason: the head is the new goal that has to be solved if we use the instance declaration.
+
+Of course, ``UndecidableInstances`` lifts the Paterson Conditions, as now.
+
+Coherence
+-----------
+
+Although quantified constraints are a little like local instance declarations, they differ
+in one big way: the local instances are written by the compiler, not the user, and hence
+cannot introduce incoherence.  Consider ::
+
+  f :: (forall a. Eq a => Eq (f a)) => f b -> f Bool
+  f x = ...rhs...
+
+In ``...rhs...`` there is, in effect a local instance for ``Eq (f a)`` for any ``a``.  But
+at a call site for ``f`` the compiler itself produces evidence to pass to ``f``. For example,
+if we called ``f Nothing``, then ``f`` is ``Maybe`` and the compiler must prove (at the
+call site) that ``forall a. Eq a => Eq (Maybe a)`` holds.  It can do this easily, by
+appealing to the existing instance declaration for ``Eq (Maybe a)``.
+
+In short, quantified constraints do not introduce incoherence.
+
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/rank_polymorphism.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/rank_polymorphism.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3b33b01
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/rank_polymorphism.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,270 @@
+Arbitrary-rank polymorphism
+===========================
+
+.. extension:: RankNTypes
+    :shortdesc: Enable rank-N types.
+        Implied by :extension:`ImpredicativeTypes`.
+
+    :implies: :extension:`ExplicitForAll`
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Allow types of arbitrary rank.
+
+.. extension:: Rank2Types
+    :shortdesc: Enable rank-2 types.
+        Synonym for :extension:`RankNTypes`.
+
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    A deprecated alias of :extension:`RankNTypes`.
+
+GHC's type system supports *arbitrary-rank* explicit universal
+quantification in types. For example, all the following types are legal: ::
+
+        f1 :: forall a b. a -> b -> a
+        g1 :: forall a b. (Ord a, Eq  b) => a -> b -> a
+
+        f2 :: (forall a. a->a) -> Int -> Int
+        g2 :: (forall a. Eq a => [a] -> a -> Bool) -> Int -> Int
+
+        f3 :: ((forall a. a->a) -> Int) -> Bool -> Bool
+
+        f4 :: Int -> (forall a. a -> a)
+
+Here, ``f1`` and ``g1`` are rank-1 types, and can be written in standard
+Haskell (e.g. ``f1 :: a->b->a``). The ``forall`` makes explicit the
+universal quantification that is implicitly added by Haskell.
+
+The functions ``f2`` and ``g2`` have rank-2 types; the ``forall`` is on
+the left of a function arrow. As ``g2`` shows, the polymorphic type on
+the left of the function arrow can be overloaded.
+
+The function ``f3`` has a rank-3 type; it has rank-2 types on the left
+of a function arrow.
+
+The language option :extension:`RankNTypes` (which implies
+:extension:`ExplicitForAll`) enables higher-rank
+types. That is, you can nest ``forall``\ s arbitrarily deep in function
+arrows. For example, a forall-type (also called a "type scheme"),
+including a type-class context, is legal:
+
+-  On the left or right (see ``f4``, for example) of a function arrow
+
+-  As the argument of a constructor, or type of a field, in a data type
+   declaration. For example, any of the ``f1, f2, f3, g1, g2`` above would
+   be valid field type signatures.
+
+-  As the type of an implicit parameter
+
+-  In a pattern type signature (see :ref:`scoped-type-variables`)
+
+The :extension:`RankNTypes` option is also required for any type with a
+``forall`` or context to the right of an arrow (e.g.
+``f :: Int -> forall a. a->a``, or ``g :: Int -> Ord a => a -> a``).
+Such types are technically rank 1, but are clearly not Haskell-98, and
+an extra extension did not seem worth the bother.
+
+In particular, in ``data`` and ``newtype`` declarations the constructor
+arguments may be polymorphic types of any rank; see examples in
+:ref:`univ`. Note that the declared types are nevertheless always
+monomorphic. This is important because by default GHC will not
+instantiate type variables to a polymorphic type
+(:ref:`impredicative-polymorphism`).
+
+The obsolete language option :extension:`Rank2Types` is a synonym for
+:extension:`RankNTypes`. They used to specify finer distinctions that GHC no
+longer makes.
+
+.. _univ:
+
+Examples
+--------
+
+These are examples of ``data`` and ``newtype`` declarations whose data
+constructors have polymorphic argument types: ::
+
+    data T a = T1 (forall b. b -> b -> b) a
+
+    data MonadT m = MkMonad { return :: forall a. a -> m a,
+                              bind   :: forall a b. m a -> (a -> m b) -> m b
+                            }
+
+    newtype Swizzle = MkSwizzle (forall a. Ord a => [a] -> [a])
+
+The constructors have rank-2 types: ::
+
+    T1 :: forall a. (forall b. b -> b -> b) -> a -> T a
+
+    MkMonad :: forall m. (forall a. a -> m a)
+                      -> (forall a b. m a -> (a -> m b) -> m b)
+                      -> MonadT m
+
+    MkSwizzle :: (forall a. Ord a => [a] -> [a]) -> Swizzle
+
+In earlier versions of GHC, it was possible to omit the ``forall`` in
+the type of the constructor if there was an explicit context. For
+example: ::
+
+    newtype Swizzle' = MkSwizzle' (Ord a => [a] -> [a])
+
+Since GHC 8.0 declarations such as ``MkSwizzle'`` will cause an out-of-scope
+error.
+
+As for type signatures, implicit quantification happens for
+non-overloaded types too. So if you write this: ::
+
+      f :: (a -> a) -> a
+
+it's just as if you had written this: ::
+
+      f :: forall a. (a -> a) -> a
+
+That is, since the type variable ``a`` isn't in scope, it's implicitly
+universally quantified.
+
+You construct values of types ``T1, MonadT, Swizzle`` by applying the
+constructor to suitable values, just as usual. For example, ::
+
+        a1 :: T Int
+        a1 = T1 (\xy->x) 3
+
+        a2, a3 :: Swizzle
+        a2 = MkSwizzle sort
+        a3 = MkSwizzle reverse
+
+        a4 :: MonadT Maybe
+        a4 = let r x = Just x
+             b m k = case m of
+                   Just y -> k y
+                   Nothing -> Nothing
+             in
+             MkMonad r b
+
+        mkTs :: (forall b. b -> b -> b) -> a -> [T a]
+        mkTs f x y = [T1 f x, T1 f y]
+
+The type of the argument can, as usual, be more general than the type
+required, as ``(MkSwizzle reverse)`` shows. (``reverse`` does not need
+the ``Ord`` constraint.)
+
+When you use pattern matching, the bound variables may now have
+polymorphic types. For example: ::
+
+        f :: T a -> a -> (a, Char)
+        f (T1 w k) x = (w k x, w 'c' 'd')
+
+        g :: (Ord a, Ord b) => Swizzle -> [a] -> (a -> b) -> [b]
+        g (MkSwizzle s) xs f = s (map f (s xs))
+
+        h :: MonadT m -> [m a] -> m [a]
+        h m [] = return m []
+        h m (x:xs) = bind m x          $ \y ->
+                     bind m (h m xs)   $ \ys ->
+                     return m (y:ys)
+
+In the function ``h`` we use the record selectors ``return`` and
+``bind`` to extract the polymorphic bind and return functions from the
+``MonadT`` data structure, rather than using pattern matching.
+
+
+.. _higher-rank-type-inference:
+
+Type inference
+--------------
+
+In general, type inference for arbitrary-rank types is undecidable. GHC
+uses an algorithm proposed by Odersky and Laufer ("Putting type
+annotations to work", POPL'96) to get a decidable algorithm by requiring
+some help from the programmer. We do not yet have a formal specification
+of "some help" but the rule is this:
+
+    For a lambda-bound or case-bound variable, x, either the programmer
+    provides an explicit polymorphic type for x, or GHC's type inference
+    will assume that x's type has no foralls in it.
+
+What does it mean to "provide" an explicit type for x? You can do that
+by giving a type signature for x directly, using a pattern type
+signature (:ref:`scoped-type-variables`), thus: ::
+
+    \ f :: (forall a. a->a) -> (f True, f 'c')
+
+Alternatively, you can give a type signature to the enclosing context,
+which GHC can "push down" to find the type for the variable: ::
+
+    (\ f -> (f True, f 'c')) :: (forall a. a->a) -> (Bool,Char)
+
+Here the type signature on the expression can be pushed inwards to give
+a type signature for f. Similarly, and more commonly, one can give a
+type signature for the function itself: ::
+
+    h :: (forall a. a->a) -> (Bool,Char)
+    h f = (f True, f 'c')
+
+You don't need to give a type signature if the lambda bound variable is
+a constructor argument. Here is an example we saw earlier: ::
+
+    f :: T a -> a -> (a, Char)
+    f (T1 w k) x = (w k x, w 'c' 'd')
+
+Here we do not need to give a type signature to ``w``, because it is an
+argument of constructor ``T1`` and that tells GHC all it needs to know.
+
+
+.. _implicit-quantification:
+
+Implicit quantification
+-----------------------
+
+GHC performs implicit quantification as follows. At the outermost level
+(only) of user-written types, if and only if there is no explicit
+``forall``, GHC finds all the type variables mentioned in the type that
+are not already in scope, and universally quantifies them. For example,
+the following pairs are equivalent: ::
+
+      f :: a -> a
+      f :: forall a. a -> a
+
+      g (x::a) = let
+                    h :: a -> b -> b
+                    h x y = y
+                 in ...
+      g (x::a) = let
+                    h :: forall b. a -> b -> b
+                    h x y = y
+                 in ...
+
+Notice that GHC always adds implicit quantifiers *at the outermost level*
+of a user-written type; it
+does *not* find the inner-most possible quantification
+point. For example: ::
+
+      f :: (a -> a) -> Int
+               -- MEANS
+      f :: forall a. (a -> a) -> Int
+               -- NOT
+      f :: (forall a. a -> a) -> Int
+
+
+      g :: (Ord a => a -> a) -> Int
+               -- MEANS
+      g :: forall a. (Ord a => a -> a) -> Int
+               -- NOT
+      g :: (forall a. Ord a => a -> a) -> Int
+
+If you want the latter type, you can write
+your ``forall``\s explicitly. Indeed, doing so is strongly advised for
+rank-2 types.
+
+Sometimes there *is* no "outermost level", in which case no
+implicit quantification happens: ::
+
+      data PackMap a b s t = PackMap (Monad f => (a -> f b) -> s -> f t)
+
+This is rejected because there is no "outermost level" for the types on the RHS
+(it would obviously be terrible to add extra parameters to ``PackMap``),
+so no implicit quantification happens, and the declaration is rejected
+(with "``f`` is out of scope").  Solution: use an explicit ``forall``: ::
+
+      data PackMap a b s t = PackMap (forall f. Monad f => (a -> f b) -> s -> f t)
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/rebindable_syntax.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/rebindable_syntax.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2d46aa2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/rebindable_syntax.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,155 @@
+.. _rebindable-syntax:
+
+Rebindable syntax and the implicit Prelude import
+-------------------------------------------------
+
+.. extension:: NoImplicitPrelude
+    :shortdesc: Don't implicitly ``import Prelude``.
+        Implied by :extension:`RebindableSyntax`.
+
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Don't import ``Prelude`` by default.
+
+GHC normally imports ``Prelude.hi`` files for
+you. If you'd rather it didn't, then give it a ``-XNoImplicitPrelude``
+option. The idea is that you can then import a Prelude of your own. (But
+don't call it ``Prelude``; the Haskell module namespace is flat, and you
+must not conflict with any Prelude module.)
+
+.. extension:: RebindableSyntax
+    :shortdesc: Employ rebindable syntax.
+        Implies :extension:`NoImplicitPrelude`.
+
+    :implies: :extension:`NoImplicitPrelude`
+    :since: 7.0.1
+
+    Enable rebinding of a variety of usually-built-in operations.
+
+Suppose you are importing a Prelude of your own in order to define your
+own numeric class hierarchy. It completely defeats that purpose if the
+literal "1" means "``Prelude.fromInteger 1``", which is what the Haskell
+Report specifies. So the :extension:`RebindableSyntax` extension causes the
+following pieces of built-in syntax to refer to *whatever is in scope*,
+not the Prelude versions:
+
+-  An integer literal ``368`` means "``fromInteger (368::Integer)``",
+   rather than "``Prelude.fromInteger (368::Integer)``".
+
+-  Fractional literals are handled in just the same way, except that the
+   translation is ``fromRational (3.68::Rational)``.
+
+-  String literals are also handled the same way, except that the
+   translation is ``fromString ("368"::String)``.
+
+-  The equality test in an overloaded numeric pattern uses whatever
+   ``(==)`` is in scope.
+
+-  The subtraction operation, and the greater-than-or-equal test, in
+   ``n+k`` patterns use whatever ``(-)`` and ``(>=)`` are in scope.
+
+-  Negation (e.g. "``- (f x)``") means "``negate (f x)``", both in
+   numeric patterns, and expressions.
+
+-  Conditionals (e.g. "``if`` e1 ``then`` e2 ``else`` e3") means
+   "``ifThenElse`` e1 e2 e3". However ``case`` expressions are
+   unaffected.
+
+-  "Do" notation is translated using whatever functions ``(>>=)``,
+   ``(>>)``, and ``fail``, are in scope (not the Prelude versions). List
+   comprehensions, ``mdo`` (:ref:`recursive-do-notation`), and parallel
+   array comprehensions, are unaffected.
+
+-  Arrow notation (see :ref:`arrow-notation`) uses whatever ``arr``,
+   ``(>>>)``, ``first``, ``app``, ``(|||)`` and ``loop`` functions are
+   in scope. But unlike the other constructs, the types of these
+   functions must match the Prelude types very closely. Details are in
+   flux; if you want to use this, ask!
+
+-  List notation, such as ``[x,y]`` or ``[m..n]`` can also be treated
+   via rebindable syntax if you use `-XOverloadedLists`;
+   see :ref:`overloaded-lists`.
+
+-  An overloaded label "``#foo``" means "``fromLabel @"foo"``", rather than
+   "``GHC.OverloadedLabels.fromLabel @"foo"``" (see :ref:`overloaded-labels`).
+
+:extension:`RebindableSyntax` implies :extension:`NoImplicitPrelude`.
+
+In all cases (apart from arrow notation), the static semantics should be
+that of the desugared form, even if that is a little unexpected. For
+example, the static semantics of the literal ``368`` is exactly that of
+``fromInteger (368::Integer)``; it's fine for ``fromInteger`` to have
+any of the types: ::
+
+    fromInteger :: Integer -> Integer
+    fromInteger :: forall a. Foo a => Integer -> a
+    fromInteger :: Num a => a -> Integer
+    fromInteger :: Integer -> Bool -> Bool
+
+Be warned: this is an experimental facility, with fewer checks than
+usual. Use ``-dcore-lint`` to typecheck the desugared program. If Core
+Lint is happy you should be all right.
+
+Things unaffected by :extension:`RebindableSyntax`
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+:extension:`RebindableSyntax` does not apply to any code generated from a
+``deriving`` clause or declaration. To see why, consider the following code: ::
+
+    {-# LANGUAGE RebindableSyntax, OverloadedStrings #-}
+    newtype Text = Text String
+
+    fromString :: String -> Text
+    fromString = Text
+
+    data Foo = Foo deriving Show
+
+This will generate code to the effect of: ::
+
+    instance Show Foo where
+      showsPrec _ Foo = showString "Foo"
+
+But because :extension:`RebindableSyntax` and :extension:`OverloadedStrings`
+are enabled, the ``"Foo"`` string literal would now be of type ``Text``, not
+``String``, which ``showString`` doesn't accept! This causes the generated
+``Show`` instance to fail to typecheck. It's hard to imagine any scenario where
+it would be desirable have :extension:`RebindableSyntax` behavior within
+derived code, so GHC simply ignores :extension:`RebindableSyntax` entirely
+when checking derived code.
+
+.. _postfix-operators:
+
+Postfix operators
+-----------------
+
+.. extension:: PostfixOperators
+    :shortdesc: Enable postfix operators.
+
+    :since: 7.10.1
+
+    Allow the use of post-fix operators
+
+The :extension:`PostfixOperators` extension enables a small extension to the syntax
+of left operator sections, which allows you to define postfix operators.
+The extension is this: the left section ::
+
+      (e !)
+
+is equivalent (from the point of view of both type checking and
+execution) to the expression ::
+
+      ((!) e)
+
+(for any expression ``e`` and operator ``(!)``. The strict Haskell 98
+interpretation is that the section is equivalent to ::
+
+      (\y -> (!) e y)
+
+That is, the operator must be a function of two arguments. GHC allows it
+to take only one argument, and that in turn allows you to write the
+function postfix.
+
+The extension does not extend to the left-hand side of function
+definitions; you must define such a function in prefix form.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/record_puns.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/record_puns.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..876db06
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/record_puns.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+.. _record-puns:
+
+Record puns
+-----------
+
+.. extension:: NamedFieldPuns
+    :shortdesc: Enable record puns.
+
+    :since: 6.10.1
+
+    Allow use of record puns.
+
+Record puns are enabled by the language extension :extension:`NamedFieldPuns`.
+
+When using records, it is common to write a pattern that binds a
+variable with the same name as a record field, such as: ::
+
+    data C = C {a :: Int}
+    f (C {a = a}) = a
+
+Record punning permits the variable name to be elided, so one can simply
+write ::
+
+    f (C {a}) = a
+
+to mean the same pattern as above. That is, in a record pattern, the
+pattern ``a`` expands into the pattern ``a = a`` for the same name
+``a``.
+
+Note that:
+
+-  Record punning can also be used in an expression, writing, for
+   example, ::
+
+       let a = 1 in C {a}
+
+   instead of ::
+
+       let a = 1 in C {a = a}
+
+   The expansion is purely syntactic, so the expanded right-hand side
+   expression refers to the nearest enclosing variable that is spelled
+   the same as the field name.
+
+-  Puns and other patterns can be mixed in the same record: ::
+
+       data C = C {a :: Int, b :: Int}
+       f (C {a, b = 4}) = a
+
+-  Puns can be used wherever record patterns occur (e.g. in ``let``
+   bindings or at the top-level).
+
+-  A pun on a qualified field name is expanded by stripping off the
+   module qualifier. For example: ::
+
+       f (C {M.a}) = a
+
+   means ::
+
+       f (M.C {M.a = a}) = a
+
+   (This is useful if the field selector ``a`` for constructor ``M.C``
+   is only in scope in qualified form.)
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/record_wildcards.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/record_wildcards.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6e2d553
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/record_wildcards.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,111 @@
+.. _record-wildcards:
+
+Record wildcards
+----------------
+
+.. extension:: RecordWildCards
+    :shortdesc: Enable record wildcards.
+        Implies :extension:`DisambiguateRecordFields`.
+
+    :implies: :extension:`DisambiguateRecordFields`.
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Allow the use of wildcards in record construction and pattern matching.
+
+Record wildcards are enabled by the language extension :extension:`RecordWildCards`. This
+exension implies :extension:`DisambiguateRecordFields`.
+
+For records with many fields, it can be tiresome to write out each field
+individually in a record pattern, as in ::
+
+    data C = C {a :: Int, b :: Int, c :: Int, d :: Int}
+    f (C {a = 1, b = b, c = c, d = d}) = b + c + d
+
+Record wildcard syntax permits a "``..``" in a record pattern, where
+each elided field ``f`` is replaced by the pattern ``f = f``. For
+example, the above pattern can be written as ::
+
+    f (C {a = 1, ..}) = b + c + d
+
+More details:
+
+-  Record wildcards in patterns can be mixed with other patterns,
+   including puns (:ref:`record-puns`); for example, in a pattern
+   ``(C {a = 1, b, ..})``. Additionally, record wildcards can be used
+   wherever record patterns occur, including in ``let`` bindings and at
+   the top-level. For example, the top-level binding ::
+
+       C {a = 1, ..} = e
+
+   defines ``b``, ``c``, and ``d``.
+
+-  Record wildcards can also be used in an expression, when constructing
+   a record. For example, ::
+
+       let {a = 1; b = 2; c = 3; d = 4} in C {..}
+
+   in place of ::
+
+       let {a = 1; b = 2; c = 3; d = 4} in C {a=a, b=b, c=c, d=d}
+
+   The expansion is purely syntactic, so the record wildcard expression
+   refers to the nearest enclosing variables that are spelled the same
+   as the omitted field names.
+
+-  For both pattern and expression wildcards, the "``..``" expands to
+   the missing *in-scope* record fields. Specifically the expansion of
+   "``C {..}``" includes ``f`` if and only if:
+
+   -  ``f`` is a record field of constructor ``C``.
+
+   -  The record field ``f`` is in scope somehow (either qualified or
+      unqualified).
+
+   These rules restrict record wildcards to the situations in which the
+   user could have written the expanded version. For example ::
+
+       module M where
+         data R = R { a,b,c :: Int }
+       module X where
+         import M( R(R,a,c) )
+         f a b = R { .. }
+
+   The ``R{..}`` expands to ``R{a=a}``, omitting ``b`` since the
+   record field is not in scope, and omitting ``c`` since the variable
+   ``c`` is not in scope (apart from the binding of the record selector
+   ``c``, of course).
+
+-  When record wildcards are use in record construction, a field ``f``
+   is initialised only if ``f`` is in scope,
+   and is not imported or bound at top level.
+   For example, ``f`` can be bound by an enclosing pattern match or
+   let/where-binding. For example ::
+
+        module M where
+          import A( a )
+
+          data R = R { a,b,c,d :: Int }
+
+          c = 3 :: Int
+
+          f b = R { .. }  -- Expands to R { b = b, d = d }
+            where
+              d = b+1
+
+   Here, ``a`` is imported, and ``c`` is bound at top level, so neither
+   contribute to the expansion of the "``..``".
+   The motivation here is that it should be
+   easy for the reader to figure out what the "``..``" expands to.
+
+-  Record wildcards cannot be used (a) in a record update construct, and
+   (b) for data constructors that are not declared with record fields.
+   For example: ::
+
+       f x = x { v=True, .. }   -- Illegal (a)
+
+       data T = MkT Int Bool
+       g = MkT { .. }           -- Illegal (b)
+       h (MkT { .. }) = True    -- Illegal (b)
+
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/records.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/records.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..66c1b90
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/records.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+.. _record-system-extensions:
+
+Records
+=======
+
+.. toctree::
+    :maxdepth: 1
+
+    traditional_record_syntax
+    disambiguate_record_fields
+    duplicate_record_fields
+    record_puns
+    record_wildcards
+    hasfield
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/recursive_do.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/recursive_do.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2f6d3e3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/recursive_do.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,212 @@
+.. _recursive-do-notation:
+
+The recursive do-notation
+-------------------------
+
+.. extension:: RecursiveDo
+    :shortdesc: Enable recursive do (mdo) notation.
+
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Allow the use of recursive ``do`` notation.
+
+The do-notation of Haskell 98 does not allow *recursive bindings*, that
+is, the variables bound in a do-expression are visible only in the
+textually following code block. Compare this to a let-expression, where
+bound variables are visible in the entire binding group.
+
+It turns out that such recursive bindings do indeed make sense for a
+variety of monads, but not all. In particular, recursion in this sense
+requires a fixed-point operator for the underlying monad, captured by
+the ``mfix`` method of the ``MonadFix`` class, defined in
+``Control.Monad.Fix`` as follows: ::
+
+    class Monad m => MonadFix m where
+       mfix :: (a -> m a) -> m a
+
+Haskell's ``Maybe``, ``[]`` (list), ``ST`` (both strict and lazy
+versions), ``IO``, and many other monads have ``MonadFix`` instances. On
+the negative side, the continuation monad, with the signature
+``(a -> r) -> r``, does not.
+
+For monads that do belong to the ``MonadFix`` class, GHC provides an
+extended version of the do-notation that allows recursive bindings. The
+:extension:`RecursiveDo` (language pragma: ``RecursiveDo``) provides the
+necessary syntactic support, introducing the keywords ``mdo`` and
+``rec`` for higher and lower levels of the notation respectively. Unlike
+bindings in a ``do`` expression, those introduced by ``mdo`` and ``rec``
+are recursively defined, much like in an ordinary let-expression. Due to
+the new keyword ``mdo``, we also call this notation the *mdo-notation*.
+
+Here is a simple (albeit contrived) example:
+
+::
+
+    {-# LANGUAGE RecursiveDo #-}
+    justOnes = mdo { xs <- Just (1:xs)
+                   ; return (map negate xs) }
+
+or equivalently
+
+::
+
+    {-# LANGUAGE RecursiveDo #-}
+    justOnes = do { rec { xs <- Just (1:xs) }
+                  ; return (map negate xs) }
+
+As you can guess ``justOnes`` will evaluate to ``Just [-1,-1,-1,...``.
+
+GHC's implementation the mdo-notation closely follows the original
+translation as described in the paper `A recursive do for
+Haskell <http://leventerkok.github.io/papers/recdo.pdf>`__, which
+in turn is based on the work `Value Recursion in Monadic
+Computations <http://leventerkok.github.io/papers/erkok-thesis.pdf>`__.
+Furthermore, GHC extends the syntax described in the former paper with a
+lower level syntax flagged by the ``rec`` keyword, as we describe next.
+
+Recursive binding groups
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The extension :extension:`RecursiveDo` also introduces a new keyword ``rec``, which
+wraps a mutually-recursive group of monadic statements inside a ``do``
+expression, producing a single statement. Similar to a ``let`` statement
+inside a ``do``, variables bound in the ``rec`` are visible throughout
+the ``rec`` group, and below it. For example, compare
+
+::
+
+        do { a <- getChar            do { a <- getChar
+           ; let { r1 = f a r2          ; rec { r1 <- f a r2
+           ;     ; r2 = g r1 }          ;     ; r2 <- g r1 }
+           ; return (r1 ++ r2) }        ; return (r1 ++ r2) }
+
+In both cases, ``r1`` and ``r2`` are available both throughout the
+``let`` or ``rec`` block, and in the statements that follow it. The
+difference is that ``let`` is non-monadic, while ``rec`` is monadic. (In
+Haskell ``let`` is really ``letrec``, of course.)
+
+The semantics of ``rec`` is fairly straightforward. Whenever GHC finds a
+``rec`` group, it will compute its set of bound variables, and will
+introduce an appropriate call to the underlying monadic value-recursion
+operator ``mfix``, belonging to the ``MonadFix`` class. Here is an
+example:
+
+::
+
+    rec { b <- f a c     ===>    (b,c) <- mfix (\ ~(b,c) -> do { b <- f a c
+        ; c <- f b a }                                         ; c <- f b a
+                                                               ; return (b,c) })
+
+As usual, the meta-variables ``b``, ``c`` etc., can be arbitrary
+patterns. In general, the statement ``rec ss`` is desugared to the
+statement
+
+::
+
+    vs <- mfix (\ ~vs -> do { ss; return vs })
+
+where ``vs`` is a tuple of the variables bound by ``ss``.
+
+Note in particular that the translation for a ``rec`` block only
+involves wrapping a call to ``mfix``: it performs no other analysis on
+the bindings. The latter is the task for the ``mdo`` notation, which is
+described next.
+
+The ``mdo`` notation
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+A ``rec``-block tells the compiler where precisely the recursive knot
+should be tied. It turns out that the placement of the recursive knots
+can be rather delicate: in particular, we would like the knots to be
+wrapped around as minimal groups as possible. This process is known as
+*segmentation*, and is described in detail in Section 3.2 of `A
+recursive do for
+Haskell <http://leventerkok.github.io/papers/recdo.pdf>`__.
+Segmentation improves polymorphism and reduces the size of the recursive
+knot. Most importantly, it avoids unnecessary interference caused by a
+fundamental issue with the so-called *right-shrinking* axiom for monadic
+recursion. In brief, most monads of interest (IO, strict state, etc.) do
+*not* have recursion operators that satisfy this axiom, and thus not
+performing segmentation can cause unnecessary interference, changing the
+termination behavior of the resulting translation. (Details can be found
+in Sections 3.1 and 7.2.2 of `Value Recursion in Monadic
+Computations <http://leventerkok.github.io/papers/erkok-thesis.pdf>`__.)
+
+The ``mdo`` notation removes the burden of placing explicit ``rec``
+blocks in the code. Unlike an ordinary ``do`` expression, in which
+variables bound by statements are only in scope for later statements,
+variables bound in an ``mdo`` expression are in scope for all statements
+of the expression. The compiler then automatically identifies minimal
+mutually recursively dependent segments of statements, treating them as
+if the user had wrapped a ``rec`` qualifier around them.
+
+The definition is syntactic:
+
+-  A generator ⟨g⟩ *depends* on a textually following generator ⟨g'⟩, if
+
+   -  ⟨g'⟩ defines a variable that is used by ⟨g⟩, or
+
+   -  ⟨g'⟩ textually appears between ⟨g⟩ and ⟨g''⟩, where ⟨g⟩ depends on
+      ⟨g''⟩.
+
+-  A *segment* of a given ``mdo``-expression is a minimal sequence of
+   generators such that no generator of the sequence depends on an
+   outside generator. As a special case, although it is not a generator,
+   the final expression in an ``mdo``-expression is considered to form a
+   segment by itself.
+
+Segments in this sense are related to *strongly-connected components*
+analysis, with the exception that bindings in a segment cannot be
+reordered and must be contiguous.
+
+Here is an example ``mdo``-expression, and its translation to ``rec``
+blocks:
+
+::
+
+    mdo { a <- getChar      ===> do { a <- getChar
+        ; b <- f a c                ; rec { b <- f a c
+        ; c <- f b a                ;     ; c <- f b a }
+        ; z <- h a b                ; z <- h a b
+        ; d <- g d e                ; rec { d <- g d e
+        ; e <- g a z                ;     ; e <- g a z }
+        ; putChar c }               ; putChar c }
+
+Note that a given ``mdo`` expression can cause the creation of multiple
+``rec`` blocks. If there are no recursive dependencies, ``mdo`` will
+introduce no ``rec`` blocks. In this latter case an ``mdo`` expression
+is precisely the same as a ``do`` expression, as one would expect.
+
+In summary, given an ``mdo`` expression, GHC first performs
+segmentation, introducing ``rec`` blocks to wrap over minimal recursive
+groups. Then, each resulting ``rec`` is desugared, using a call to
+``Control.Monad.Fix.mfix`` as described in the previous section. The
+original ``mdo``-expression typechecks exactly when the desugared
+version would do so.
+
+Here are some other important points in using the recursive-do notation:
+
+-  It is enabled with the extension :extension:`RecursiveDo`, or the
+   ``LANGUAGE RecursiveDo`` pragma. (The same extension enables both
+   ``mdo``-notation, and the use of ``rec`` blocks inside ``do``
+   expressions.)
+
+-  ``rec`` blocks can also be used inside ``mdo``-expressions, which
+   will be treated as a single statement. However, it is good style to
+   either use ``mdo`` or ``rec`` blocks in a single expression.
+
+-  If recursive bindings are required for a monad, then that monad must
+   be declared an instance of the ``MonadFix`` class.
+
+-  The following instances of ``MonadFix`` are automatically provided:
+   List, Maybe, IO. Furthermore, the ``Control.Monad.ST`` and
+   ``Control.Monad.ST.Lazy`` modules provide the instances of the
+   ``MonadFix`` class for Haskell's internal state monad (strict and
+   lazy, respectively).
+
+-  Like ``let`` and ``where`` bindings, name shadowing is not allowed
+   within an ``mdo``-expression or a ``rec``-block; that is, all the
+   names bound in a single ``rec`` must be distinct. (GHC will complain
+   if this is not the case.)
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/rewrite_rules.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/rewrite_rules.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b384fae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/rewrite_rules.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,471 @@
+.. _rewrite-rules:
+
+Rewrite rules
+=============
+
+.. index::
+   single: rewrite rules
+
+.. pragma:: RULES "⟨name⟩" forall ⟨binder⟩ ... . ⟨expr⟩ = ⟨expr⟩ ...
+
+    :where: top-level
+
+    Define a rewrite rule to be used to optimize a source program.
+
+The programmer can specify rewrite rules as part of the source program
+(in a pragma). Here is an example: ::
+
+      {-# RULES
+            "map/map"    forall f g xs.  map f (map g xs) = map (f.g) xs
+        #-}
+
+Use the debug flag :ghc-flag:`-ddump-simpl-stats` to see what rules fired. If
+you need more information, then :ghc-flag:`-ddump-rule-firings` shows you each
+individual rule firing and :ghc-flag:`-ddump-rule-rewrites` also shows what the
+code looks like before and after the rewrite.
+
+.. ghc-flag:: -fenable-rewrite-rules
+    :shortdesc: Switch on all rewrite rules (including rules generated by
+        automatic specialisation of overloaded functions). Implied by
+        :ghc-flag:`-O`.
+    :type: dynamic
+    :reverse: -fno-enable-rewrite-rules
+    :category: optimization
+
+    Allow the compiler to apply rewrite rules to the source program.
+
+Syntax
+------
+
+From a syntactic point of view:
+
+-  There may be zero or more rules in a :pragma:`RULES` pragma, separated by
+   semicolons (which may be generated by the layout rule).
+
+-  The layout rule applies in a pragma. Currently no new indentation
+   level is set, so if you put several rules in single ``RULES`` pragma and
+   wish to use layout to separate them, you must lay out the starting in
+   the same column as the enclosing definitions. ::
+
+         {-# RULES
+               "map/map"    forall f g xs.  map f (map g xs) = map (f.g) xs
+               "map/append" forall f xs ys. map f (xs ++ ys) = map f xs ++ map f ys
+           #-}
+
+   Furthermore, the closing ``#-}`` should start in a column to the
+   right of the opening ``{-#``.
+
+-  Each rule has a name, enclosed in double quotes. The name itself has
+   no significance at all. It is only used when reporting how many times
+   the rule fired.
+
+-  A rule may optionally have a phase-control number (see
+   :ref:`phase-control`), immediately after the name of the rule. Thus: ::
+
+         {-# RULES
+               "map/map" [2]  forall f g xs. map f (map g xs) = map (f.g) xs
+           #-}
+
+   The ``[2]`` means that the rule is active in Phase 2 and subsequent
+   phases. The inverse notation ``[~2]`` is also accepted, meaning that
+   the rule is active up to, but not including, Phase 2.
+
+   Rules support the special phase-control notation ``[~]``, which means
+   the rule is never active. This feature supports plugins (see
+   :ref:`compiler-plugins`), by making it possible to define a RULE that
+   is never run by GHC, but is nevertheless parsed, typechecked etc, so
+   that it is available to the plugin.
+
+-  Each (term) variable mentioned in a rule must either be in scope (e.g.
+   ``map``), or bound by the ``forall`` (e.g. ``f``, ``g``, ``xs``). The
+   variables bound by the ``forall`` are called the *pattern* variables.
+   They are separated by spaces, just like in a type ``forall``.
+
+-  A pattern variable may optionally have a type signature. If the type
+   of the pattern variable is polymorphic, it *must* have a type
+   signature. For example, here is the ``foldr/build`` rule: ::
+
+       "fold/build"  forall k z (g::forall b. (a->b->b) -> b -> b) .
+                     foldr k z (build g) = g k z
+
+   Since ``g`` has a polymorphic type, it must have a type signature.
+
+-  If :extension:`ExplicitForAll` is enabled, type/kind variables can also be
+   explicitly bound. For example: ::
+
+       {-# RULES "id" forall a. forall (x :: a). id @a x = x #-}
+
+   When a type-level explicit ``forall`` is present, each type/kind variable
+   mentioned must now also be either in scope or bound by the ``forall``. In
+   particular, unlike some other places in Haskell, this means free kind
+   variables will not be implicitly bound. For example: ::
+
+       "this_is_bad" forall (c :: k). forall (x :: Proxy c) ...
+       "this_is_ok"  forall k (c :: k). forall (x :: Proxy c) ...
+
+   When bound type/kind variables are needed, both foralls must always be
+   included, though if no pattern variables are needed, the second can be left
+   empty. For example: ::
+
+       {-# RULES "map/id" forall a. forall. map (id @a) = id @[a] #-}
+
+-  The left hand side of a rule must consist of a top-level variable
+   applied to arbitrary expressions. For example, this is *not* OK: ::
+
+       "wrong1"   forall e1 e2.  case True of { True -> e1; False -> e2 } = e1
+       "wrong2"   forall f.      f True = True
+       "wrong3"   forall x.      Just x = Nothing
+
+   In ``"wrong1"``, the LHS is not an application; in ``"wrong2"``, the
+   LHS has a pattern variable in the head. In ``"wrong3"``, the LHS consists
+   of a *constructor*, rather than a *variable*, applied to an argument.
+
+-  A rule does not need to be in the same module as (any of) the
+   variables it mentions, though of course they need to be in scope.
+
+-  All rules are implicitly exported from the module, and are therefore
+   in force in any module that imports the module that defined the rule,
+   directly or indirectly. (That is, if A imports B, which imports C,
+   then C's rules are in force when compiling A.) The situation is very
+   similar to that for instance declarations.
+
+-  Inside a :pragma:`RULES` "``forall``" is treated as a keyword, regardless of any
+   other flag settings. Furthermore, inside a :pragma:`RULES`, the language
+   extension :extension:`ScopedTypeVariables` is automatically enabled; see
+   :ref:`scoped-type-variables`.
+
+-  Like other pragmas, :pragma:`RULES` pragmas are always checked for scope errors,
+   and are typechecked. Typechecking means that the LHS and RHS of a
+   rule are typechecked, and must have the same type. However, rules are
+   only *enabled* if the :ghc-flag:`-fenable-rewrite-rules` flag is on (see
+   :ref:`rule-semantics`).
+
+.. _rule-semantics:
+
+Semantics
+---------
+
+From a semantic point of view:
+
+-  Rules are enabled (that is, used during optimisation) by the
+   :ghc-flag:`-fenable-rewrite-rules` flag. This flag is implied by
+   :ghc-flag:`-O`, and may be switched off (as usual) by
+   :ghc-flag:`-fno-enable-rewrite-rules <-fenable-rewrite-rules>`. (NB: enabling
+   :ghc-flag:`-fenable-rewrite-rules` without :ghc-flag:`-O` may not do what you
+   expect, though, because without :ghc-flag:`-O` GHC ignores all optimisation
+   information in interface files; see :ghc-flag:`-fignore-interface-pragmas`).
+   Note that :ghc-flag:`-fenable-rewrite-rules` is an
+   *optimisation* flag, and has no effect on parsing or typechecking.
+
+-  Rules are regarded as left-to-right rewrite rules. When GHC finds an
+   expression that is a substitution instance of the LHS of a rule, it
+   replaces the expression by the (appropriately-substituted) RHS. By "a
+   substitution instance" we mean that the LHS can be made equal to the
+   expression by substituting for the pattern variables.
+
+-  GHC makes absolutely no attempt to verify that the LHS and RHS of a
+   rule have the same meaning. That is undecidable in general, and
+   infeasible in most interesting cases. The responsibility is entirely
+   the programmer's!
+
+-  GHC makes no attempt to make sure that the rules are confluent or
+   terminating. For example: ::
+
+         "loop"        forall x y.  f x y = f y x
+
+   This rule will cause the compiler to go into an infinite loop.
+
+-  If more than one rule matches a call, GHC will choose one arbitrarily
+   to apply.
+
+-  GHC currently uses a very simple, syntactic, matching algorithm for
+   matching a rule LHS with an expression. It seeks a substitution which
+   makes the LHS and expression syntactically equal modulo alpha
+   conversion. The pattern (rule), but not the expression, is
+   eta-expanded if necessary. (Eta-expanding the expression can lead to
+   laziness bugs.) But not beta conversion (that's called higher-order
+   matching).
+
+   Matching is carried out on GHC's intermediate language, which
+   includes type abstractions and applications. So a rule only matches
+   if the types match too. See :ref:`rule-spec` below.
+
+-  GHC keeps trying to apply the rules as it optimises the program. For
+   example, consider: ::
+
+         let s = map f
+             t = map g
+         in
+         s (t xs)
+
+   The expression ``s (t xs)`` does not match the rule ``"map/map"``,
+   but GHC will substitute for ``s`` and ``t``, giving an expression
+   which does match. If ``s`` or ``t`` was (a) used more than once, and
+   (b) large or a redex, then it would not be substituted, and the rule
+   would not fire.
+
+.. _rules-inline:
+
+How rules interact with ``INLINE``/``NOINLINE`` pragmas
+-------------------------------------------------------
+
+Ordinary inlining happens at the same time as rule rewriting, which may
+lead to unexpected results. Consider this (artificial) example ::
+
+    f x = x
+    g y = f y
+    h z = g True
+
+    {-# RULES "f" f True = False #-}
+
+Since ``f``\'s right-hand side is small, it is inlined into ``g``, to
+give ::
+
+    g y = y
+
+Now ``g`` is inlined into ``h``, but ``f``\'s RULE has no chance to
+fire. If instead GHC had first inlined ``g`` into ``h`` then there would have
+been a better chance that ``f``\'s :pragma:`RULES` might fire.
+
+The way to get predictable behaviour is to use a :pragma:`NOINLINE` pragma, or an
+``INLINE[⟨phase⟩]`` pragma, on ``f``, to ensure that it is not inlined until
+its :pragma:`RULES` have had a chance to fire. The warning flag
+:ghc-flag:`-Winline-rule-shadowing` (see :ref:`options-sanity`) warns about
+this situation.
+
+.. _conlike:
+
+How rules interact with ``CONLIKE`` pragmas
+-------------------------------------------
+
+GHC is very cautious about duplicating work. For example, consider ::
+
+    f k z xs = let xs = build g
+               in ...(foldr k z xs)...sum xs...
+    {-# RULES "foldr/build" forall k z g. foldr k z (build g) = g k z #-}
+
+Since ``xs`` is used twice, GHC does not fire the foldr/build rule.
+Rightly so, because it might take a lot of work to compute ``xs``, which
+would be duplicated if the rule fired.
+
+Sometimes, however, this approach is over-cautious, and we *do* want the
+rule to fire, even though doing so would duplicate redex. There is no
+way that GHC can work out when this is a good idea, so we provide the
+``CONLIKE`` pragma to declare it, thus: ::
+
+    {-# INLINE CONLIKE [1] f #-}
+    f x = blah
+
+``CONLIKE`` is a modifier to an ``INLINE`` or ``NOINLINE`` pragma. It specifies that
+an application of ``f`` to one argument (in general, the number of arguments
+to the left of the ``=`` sign) should be considered cheap enough to
+duplicate, if such a duplication would make rule fire. (The name
+"CONLIKE" is short for "constructor-like", because constructors
+certainly have such a property.) The :pragma:`CONLIKE` pragma is a modifier to
+:pragma:`INLINE`/:pragma:`NOINLINE` because it really only makes sense to match
+``f`` on the LHS of a rule if you are sure that ``f`` is not going to be inlined
+before the rule has a chance to fire.
+
+.. _rules-class-methods:
+
+How rules interact with class methods
+-------------------------------------
+
+Giving a RULE for a class method is a bad idea: ::
+
+    class C a where
+      op :: a -> a -> a
+
+    instance C Bool where
+      op x y = ...rhs for op at Bool...
+
+    {-# RULES "f" op True y = False #-}
+
+In this example, ``op`` is not an ordinary top-level function; it is a
+class method. GHC rapidly rewrites any occurrences of
+``op``\-used-at-type-Bool to a specialised function, say ``opBool``,
+where ::
+
+    opBool :: Bool -> Bool -> Bool
+    opBool x y = ..rhs for op at Bool...
+
+So the RULE never has a chance to fire, for just the same reasons as in
+:ref:`rules-inline`.
+
+The solution is to define the instance-specific function yourself, with
+a pragma to prevent it being inlined too early, and give a RULE for it: ::
+
+    instance C Bool where
+      op = opBool
+
+    opBool :: Bool -> Bool -> Bool
+    {-# NOINLINE [1] opBool #-}
+    opBool x y = ..rhs for op at Bool...
+
+    {-# RULES "f" opBool True y = False #-}
+
+If you want a RULE that truly applies to the overloaded class method,
+the only way to do it is like this: ::
+
+    class C a where
+      op_c :: a -> a -> a
+
+    op :: C a => a -> a -> a
+    {-# NOINLINE [1] op #-}
+    op = op_c
+
+    {-# RULES "reassociate" op (op x y) z = op x (op y z) #-}
+
+Now the inlining of ``op`` is delayed until the rule has a chance to
+fire. The down-side is that instance declarations must define ``op_c``,
+but all other uses should go via ``op``.
+
+List fusion
+-----------
+
+The RULES mechanism is used to implement fusion (deforestation) of
+common list functions. If a "good consumer" consumes an intermediate
+list constructed by a "good producer", the intermediate list should be
+eliminated entirely.
+
+The following are good producers:
+
+-  List comprehensions
+
+-  Enumerations of ``Int``, ``Integer`` and ``Char`` (e.g.
+   ``['a'..'z']``).
+
+-  Explicit lists (e.g. ``[True, False]``)
+
+-  The cons constructor (e.g ``3:4:[]``)
+
+-  ``++``
+
+-  ``map``
+
+-  ``take``, ``filter``
+
+-  ``iterate``, ``repeat``
+
+-  ``zip``, ``zipWith``
+
+The following are good consumers:
+
+-  List comprehensions
+
+-  ``array`` (on its second argument)
+
+-  ``++`` (on its first argument)
+
+-  ``foldr``
+
+-  ``map``
+
+-  ``take``, ``filter``
+
+-  ``concat``
+
+-  ``unzip``, ``unzip2``, ``unzip3``, ``unzip4``
+
+-  ``zip``, ``zipWith`` (but on one argument only; if both are good
+   producers, ``zip`` will fuse with one but not the other)
+
+-  ``partition``
+
+-  ``head``
+
+-  ``and``, ``or``, ``any``, ``all``
+
+-  ``sequence_``
+
+-  ``msum``
+
+So, for example, the following should generate no intermediate lists: ::
+
+    array (1,10) [(i,i*i) | i <- map (+ 1) [0..9]]
+
+This list could readily be extended; if there are Prelude functions that
+you use a lot which are not included, please tell us.
+
+If you want to write your own good consumers or producers, look at the
+Prelude definitions of the above functions to see how to do so.
+
+.. _rule-spec:
+
+Specialisation
+--------------
+
+Rewrite rules can be used to get the same effect as a feature present in
+earlier versions of GHC. For example, suppose that: ::
+
+    genericLookup :: Ord a => Table a b   -> a   -> b
+    intLookup     ::          Table Int b -> Int -> b
+
+where ``intLookup`` is an implementation of ``genericLookup`` that works
+very fast for keys of type ``Int``. You might wish to tell GHC to use
+``intLookup`` instead of ``genericLookup`` whenever the latter was
+called with type ``Table Int b -> Int -> b``. It used to be possible to
+write ::
+
+    {-# SPECIALIZE genericLookup :: Table Int b -> Int -> b = intLookup #-}
+
+This feature is no longer in GHC, but rewrite rules let you do the same
+thing: ::
+
+    {-# RULES "genericLookup/Int" genericLookup = intLookup #-}
+
+This slightly odd-looking rule instructs GHC to replace
+``genericLookup`` by ``intLookup`` *whenever the types match*. What is
+more, this rule does not need to be in the same file as
+``genericLookup``, unlike the ``SPECIALIZE`` pragmas which currently do
+(so that they have an original definition available to specialise).
+
+It is *Your Responsibility* to make sure that ``intLookup`` really
+behaves as a specialised version of ``genericLookup``!!!
+
+An example in which using ``RULES`` for specialisation will Win Big: ::
+
+    toDouble :: Real a => a -> Double
+    toDouble = fromRational . toRational
+
+    {-# RULES "toDouble/Int" toDouble = i2d #-}
+    i2d (I# i) = D# (int2Double# i) -- uses Glasgow prim-op directly
+
+The ``i2d`` function is virtually one machine instruction; the default
+conversion—via an intermediate ``Rational``\-is obscenely expensive by
+comparison.
+
+.. _controlling-rules:
+
+Controlling what's going on in rewrite rules
+--------------------------------------------
+
+-  Use :ghc-flag:`-ddump-rules` to see the rules that are defined *in this
+   module*. This includes rules generated by the specialisation pass,
+   but excludes rules imported from other modules.
+
+-  Use :ghc-flag:`-ddump-simpl-stats` to see what rules are being fired. If you
+   add :ghc-flag:`-dppr-debug` you get a more detailed listing.
+
+-  Use :ghc-flag:`-ddump-rule-firings` or :ghc-flag:`-ddump-rule-rewrites` to see in
+   great detail what rules are being fired. If you add :ghc-flag:`-dppr-debug`
+   you get a still more detailed listing.
+
+-  The definition of (say) ``build`` in ``GHC/Base.hs`` looks like
+   this: ::
+
+               build   :: forall a. (forall b. (a -> b -> b) -> b -> b) -> [a]
+               {-# INLINE build #-}
+               build g = g (:) []
+
+   Notice the :pragma:`INLINE`! That prevents ``(:)`` from being inlined when
+   compiling ``PrelBase``, so that an importing module will “see” the
+   ``(:)``, and can match it on the LHS of a rule. ``INLINE`` prevents
+   any inlining happening in the RHS of the ``INLINE`` thing. I regret
+   the delicacy of this.
+
+-  In ``libraries/base/GHC/Base.hs`` look at the rules for ``map`` to
+   see how to write rules that will do fusion and yet give an efficient
+   program even if fusion doesn't happen. More rules in
+   ``GHC/List.hs``.
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/roles.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/roles.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a92a787
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/roles.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,228 @@
+.. _roles:
+
+Roles
+=====
+
+.. index::
+   single: roles
+
+Using :extension:`GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving`
+(:ref:`newtype-deriving`), a programmer can take existing
+instances of classes and "lift" these into instances of that class for a
+newtype. However, this is not always safe. For example, consider the
+following:
+
+::
+
+      newtype Age = MkAge { unAge :: Int }
+
+      type family Inspect x
+      type instance Inspect Age = Int
+      type instance Inspect Int = Bool
+
+      class BadIdea a where
+        bad :: a -> Inspect a
+
+      instance BadIdea Int where
+        bad = (> 0)
+
+      deriving instance BadIdea Age    -- not allowed!
+
+If the derived instance were allowed, what would the type of its method
+``bad`` be? It would seem to be ``Age -> Inspect Age``, which is
+equivalent to ``Age -> Int``, according to the type family ``Inspect``.
+Yet, if we simply adapt the implementation from the instance for
+``Int``, the implementation for ``bad`` produces a ``Bool``, and we have
+trouble.
+
+The way to identify such situations is to have *roles* assigned to type
+variables of datatypes, classes, and type synonyms.
+
+Roles as implemented in GHC are a from a simplified version of the work
+described in `Generative type abstraction and type-level
+computation <http://www.seas.upenn.edu/~sweirich/papers/popl163af-weirich.pdf>`__,
+published at POPL 2011.
+
+.. _nominal-representational-and-phantom:
+
+Nominal, Representational, and Phantom
+--------------------------------------
+
+.. index::
+   single: representational; role
+   single: nominal; role
+   single: phantom; role
+
+The goal of the roles system is to track when two types have the same
+underlying representation. In the example above, ``Age`` and ``Int``
+have the same representation. But, the corresponding instances of
+``BadIdea`` would *not* have the same representation, because the types
+of the implementations of ``bad`` would be different.
+
+Suppose we have two uses of a type constructor, each applied to the same
+parameters except for one difference. (For example, ``T Age Bool c`` and
+``T Int Bool c`` for some type ``T``.) The role of a type parameter says
+what we need to know about the two differing type arguments in order to
+know that the two outer types have the same representation (in the
+example, what must be true about ``Age`` and ``Int`` in order to show
+that ``T Age Bool c`` has the same representation as ``T Int Bool c``).
+
+GHC supports three different roles for type parameters: nominal,
+representational, and phantom. If a type parameter has a nominal role,
+then the two types that differ must not actually differ at all: they
+must be identical (after type family reduction). If a type parameter has
+a representational role, then the two types must have the same
+representation. (If ``T``\'s first parameter's role is representational,
+then ``T Age Bool c`` and ``T Int Bool c`` would have the same
+representation, because ``Age`` and ``Int`` have the same
+representation.) If a type parameter has a phantom role, then we need no
+further information.
+
+Here are some examples: ::
+
+      data Simple a = MkSimple a          -- a has role representational
+
+      type family F
+      type instance F Int = Bool
+      type instance F Age = Char
+
+      data Complex a = MkComplex (F a)    -- a has role nominal
+
+      data Phant a = MkPhant Bool         -- a has role phantom
+
+The type ``Simple`` has its parameter at role representational, which is
+generally the most common case. ``Simple Age`` would have the same
+representation as ``Simple Int``. The type ``Complex``, on the other
+hand, has its parameter at role nominal, because ``Complex Age`` and
+``Complex Int`` are *not* the same. Lastly, ``Phant Age`` and
+``Phant Bool`` have the same representation, even though ``Age`` and
+``Bool`` are unrelated.
+
+.. _role-inference:
+
+Role inference
+--------------
+
+What role should a given type parameter should have? GHC performs role
+inference to determine the correct role for every parameter. It starts
+with a few base facts: ``(->)`` has two representational parameters;
+``(~)`` has two nominal parameters; all type families' parameters are
+nominal; and all GADT-like parameters are nominal. Then, these facts are
+propagated to all places where these types are used. The default role
+for datatypes and synonyms is phantom; the default role for classes is
+nominal. Thus, for datatypes and synonyms, any parameters unused in the
+right-hand side (or used only in other types in phantom positions) will
+be phantom. Whenever a parameter is used in a representational position
+(that is, used as a type argument to a constructor whose corresponding
+variable is at role representational), we raise its role from phantom to
+representational. Similarly, when a parameter is used in a nominal
+position, its role is upgraded to nominal. We never downgrade a role
+from nominal to phantom or representational, or from representational to
+phantom. In this way, we infer the most-general role for each parameter.
+
+Classes have their roles default to nominal to promote coherence of
+class instances. If a ``C Int`` were stored in a datatype, it would be
+quite bad if that were somehow changed into a ``C Age`` somewhere,
+especially if another ``C Age`` had been declared!
+
+There is one particularly tricky case that should be explained: ::
+
+      data Tricky a b = MkTricky (a b)
+
+What should ``Tricky``'s roles be? At first blush, it would seem that
+both ``a`` and ``b`` should be at role representational, since both are
+used in the right-hand side and neither is involved in a type family.
+However, this would be wrong, as the following example shows: ::
+
+      data Nom a = MkNom (F a)   -- type family F from example above
+
+Is ``Tricky Nom Age`` representationally equal to ``Tricky Nom Int``?
+No! The former stores a ``Char`` and the latter stores a ``Bool``. The
+solution to this is to require all parameters to type variables to have
+role nominal. Thus, GHC would infer role representational for ``a`` but
+role nominal for ``b``.
+
+.. _role-annotations:
+
+Role annotations
+----------------
+
+.. extension:: RoleAnnotations
+    :shortdesc: Enable role annotations.
+
+    :since: 7.8.1
+
+    Allow role annotation syntax.
+
+Sometimes the programmer wants to constrain the inference process. For
+example, the base library contains the following definition: ::
+
+      data Ptr a = Ptr Addr#
+
+The idea is that ``a`` should really be a representational parameter,
+but role inference assigns it to phantom. This makes some level of
+sense: a pointer to an ``Int`` really is representationally the same as
+a pointer to a ``Bool``. But, that's not at all how we want to use
+``Ptr``\ s! So, we want to be able to say ::
+
+      type role Ptr representational
+      data Ptr a = Ptr Addr#
+
+The ``type role`` (enabled with :extension:`RoleAnnotations`) declaration
+forces the parameter ``a`` to be at role representational, not role
+phantom. GHC then checks the user-supplied roles to make sure they don't
+break any promises. It would be bad, for example, if the user could make
+``BadIdea``\'s role be representational.
+
+As another example, we can consider a type ``Set a`` that represents a
+set of data, ordered according to ``a``\'s ``Ord`` instance. While it
+would generally be type-safe to consider ``a`` to be at role
+representational, it is possible that a ``newtype`` and its base type
+have *different* orderings encoded in their respective ``Ord``
+instances. This would lead to misbehavior at runtime. So, the author of
+the ``Set`` datatype would like its parameter to be at role nominal.
+This would be done with a declaration ::
+
+      type role Set nominal
+
+Role annotations can also be used should a programmer wish to write a
+class with a representational (or phantom) role. However, as a class
+with non-nominal roles can quickly lead to class instance incoherence,
+it is necessary to also specify :extension:`IncoherentInstances` to allow
+non-nominal roles for classes.
+
+The other place where role annotations may be necessary are in
+``hs-boot`` files (:ref:`mutual-recursion`), where the right-hand sides
+of definitions can be omitted. As usual, the types/classes declared in
+an ``hs-boot`` file must match up with the definitions in the ``hs``
+file, including down to the roles. The default role for datatypes is
+representational in ``hs-boot`` files, corresponding to the common use
+case.
+
+Role annotations are allowed on data, newtype, and class declarations. A
+role annotation declaration starts with ``type role`` and is followed by
+one role listing for each parameter of the type. (This parameter count
+includes parameters implicitly specified by a kind signature in a
+GADT-style data or newtype declaration.) Each role listing is a role
+(``nominal``, ``representational``, or ``phantom``) or a ``_``. Using a
+``_`` says that GHC should infer that role. The role annotation may go
+anywhere in the same module as the datatype or class definition (much
+like a value-level type signature). Here are some examples: ::
+
+      type role T1 _ phantom
+      data T1 a b = MkT1 a     -- b is not used; annotation is fine but unnecessary
+
+      type role T2 _ phantom
+      data T2 a b = MkT2 b     -- ERROR: b is used and cannot be phantom
+
+      type role T3 _ nominal
+      data T3 a b = MkT3 a     -- OK: nominal is higher than necessary, but safe
+
+      type role T4 nominal
+      data T4 a = MkT4 (a Int) -- OK, but nominal is higher than necessary
+
+      type role C representational _   -- OK, with -XIncoherentInstances
+      class C a b where ...    -- OK, b will get a nominal role
+
+      type role X nominal
+      type X a = ...           -- ERROR: role annotations not allowed for type synonyms
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/safe_haskell.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/safe_haskell.rst
index edfedda..edfedda 100644
--- a/docs/users_guide/safe_haskell.rst
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/safe_haskell.rst
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/safe_imports.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/safe_imports.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..51a17f3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/safe_imports.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+.. _safe-imports-ext:
+
+Safe imports
+~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. extension:: Safe
+    :shortdesc: Enable the :ref:`Safe Haskell <safe-haskell>` Safe mode.
+    :noindex:
+
+    :since: 7.2.1
+
+    Declare the Safe Haskell state of the current module.
+
+.. extension:: Trustworthy
+    :shortdesc: Enable the :ref:`Safe Haskell <safe-haskell>` Trustworthy mode.
+    :noindex:
+
+    :since: 7.2.1
+
+    Declare the Safe Haskell state of the current module.
+
+.. extension:: Unsafe
+    :shortdesc: Enable Safe Haskell Unsafe mode.
+    :noindex:
+
+    :since: 7.4.1
+
+    Declare the Safe Haskell state of the current module.
+
+With the :extension:`Safe`, :extension:`Trustworthy` and :extension:`Unsafe`
+language flags, GHC extends the import declaration syntax to take an optional
+``safe`` keyword after the ``import`` keyword. This feature is part of the Safe
+Haskell GHC extension. For example: ::
+
+    import safe qualified Network.Socket as NS
+
+would import the module ``Network.Socket`` with compilation only
+succeeding if ``Network.Socket`` can be safely imported. For a description of
+when a import is considered safe see :ref:`safe-haskell`.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/scoped_type_variables.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/scoped_type_variables.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..002686f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/scoped_type_variables.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,281 @@
+.. _universal-quantification:
+
+.. _scoped-type-variables:
+
+Lexically scoped type variables
+===============================
+
+.. extension:: ScopedTypeVariables
+    :shortdesc: Enable lexically-scoped type variables.
+
+    :implies: :extension:`ExplicitForAll`
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Enable lexical scoping of type variables explicitly introduced with
+    ``forall``.
+
+.. tip::
+
+    ``ScopedTypeVariables`` breaks GHC's usual rule that explicit ``forall`` is optional and doesn't affect semantics.
+    For the :ref:`decl-type-sigs` (or :ref:`exp-type-sigs`) examples in this section,
+    the explicit ``forall`` is required.
+    (If omitted, usually the program will not compile; in a few cases it will compile but the functions get a different signature.)
+    To trigger those forms of ``ScopedTypeVariables``, the ``forall`` must appear against the top-level signature (or outer expression)
+    but *not* against nested signatures referring to the same type variables.
+
+    Explicit ``forall`` is not always required -- see :ref:`pattern signature equivalent <pattern-equiv-form>` for the example in this section, or :ref:`pattern-type-sigs`.
+
+GHC supports *lexically scoped type variables*, without which some type
+signatures are simply impossible to write. For example: ::
+
+    f :: forall a. [a] -> [a]
+    f xs = ys ++ ys
+         where
+           ys :: [a]
+           ys = reverse xs
+
+The type signature for ``f`` brings the type variable ``a`` into scope,
+because of the explicit ``forall`` (:ref:`decl-type-sigs`). The type
+variables bound by a ``forall`` scope over the entire definition of the
+accompanying value declaration. In this example, the type variable ``a``
+scopes over the whole definition of ``f``, including over the type
+signature for ``ys``. In Haskell 98 it is not possible to declare a type
+for ``ys``; a major benefit of scoped type variables is that it becomes
+possible to do so.
+
+.. _pattern-equiv-form:
+
+An equivalent form for that example, avoiding explicit ``forall`` uses :ref:`pattern-type-sigs`: ::
+
+    f :: [a] -> [a]
+    f (xs :: [aa]) = xs ++ ys
+      where
+        ys :: [aa]
+        ys = reverse xs
+
+Unlike the ``forall`` form, type variable ``a`` from ``f``'s signature is not scoped over ``f``'s equation(s).
+Type variable ``aa`` bound by the pattern signature is scoped over the right-hand side of ``f``'s equation.
+(Therefore there is no need to use a distinct type variable; using ``a`` would be equivalent.)
+
+
+Overview
+--------
+
+The design follows the following principles
+
+-  A scoped type variable stands for a type *variable*, and not for a
+   *type*. (This is a change from GHC's earlier design.)
+
+-  Furthermore, distinct lexical type variables stand for distinct type
+   variables. This means that every programmer-written type signature
+   (including one that contains free scoped type variables) denotes a
+   *rigid* type; that is, the type is fully known to the type checker,
+   and no inference is involved.
+
+-  Lexical type variables may be alpha-renamed freely, without changing
+   the program.
+
+A *lexically scoped type variable* can be bound by:
+
+-  A declaration type signature (:ref:`decl-type-sigs`)
+
+-  An expression type signature (:ref:`exp-type-sigs`)
+
+-  A pattern type signature (:ref:`pattern-type-sigs`)
+
+-  Class and instance declarations (:ref:`cls-inst-scoped-tyvars`)
+
+In Haskell, a programmer-written type signature is implicitly quantified
+over its free type variables (`Section
+4.1.2 <http://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/decls.html#sect4.1.2>`__ of
+the Haskell Report). Lexically scoped type variables affect this
+implicit quantification rules as follows: any type variable that is in
+scope is *not* universally quantified. For example, if type variable
+``a`` is in scope, then ::
+
+      (e :: a -> a)     means     (e :: a -> a)
+      (e :: b -> b)     means     (e :: forall b. b->b)
+      (e :: a -> b)     means     (e :: forall b. a->b)
+
+.. _decl-type-sigs:
+
+Declaration type signatures
+---------------------------
+
+A declaration type signature that has *explicit* quantification (using
+``forall``) brings into scope the explicitly-quantified type variables,
+in the definition of the named function. For example: ::
+
+      f :: forall a. [a] -> [a]
+      f (x:xs) = xs ++ [ x :: a ]
+
+The "``forall a``" brings "``a``" into scope in the definition of
+"``f``".
+
+This only happens if:
+
+-  The quantification in ``f``\'s type signature is explicit. For
+   example: ::
+
+         g :: [a] -> [a]
+         g (x:xs) = xs ++ [ x :: a ]
+
+   This program will be rejected, because "``a``" does not scope over
+   the definition of "``g``", so "``x::a``" means "``x::forall a. a``"
+   by Haskell's usual implicit quantification rules.
+
+-  The type variable is quantified by the single, syntactically visible,
+   outermost ``forall`` of the type signature. For example, GHC will reject
+   all of the following examples: ::
+
+         f1 :: forall a. forall b. a -> [b] -> [b]
+         f1 _ (x:xs) = xs ++ [ x :: b ]
+
+         f2 :: forall a. a -> forall b. [b] -> [b]
+         f2 _ (x:xs) = xs ++ [ x :: b ]
+
+         type Foo = forall b. [b] -> [b]
+
+         f3 :: Foo
+         f3 (x:xs) = xs ++ [ x :: b ]
+
+   In ``f1`` and ``f2``, the type variable ``b`` is not quantified by the
+   outermost ``forall``, so it is not in scope over the bodies of the
+   functions. Neither is ``b`` in scope over the body of ``f3``, as the
+   ``forall`` is tucked underneath the ``Foo`` type synonym.
+
+-  The signature gives a type for a function binding or a bare variable
+   binding, not a pattern binding. For example: ::
+
+         f1 :: forall a. [a] -> [a]
+         f1 (x:xs) = xs ++ [ x :: a ]   -- OK
+
+         f2 :: forall a. [a] -> [a]
+         f2 = \(x:xs) -> xs ++ [ x :: a ]   -- OK
+
+         f3 :: forall a. [a] -> [a]
+         Just f3 = Just (\(x:xs) -> xs ++ [ x :: a ])   -- Not OK!
+
+   ``f1`` is a function binding, and ``f2`` binds a bare variable;
+   in both cases the type signature brings ``a`` into scope.
+   However the binding for ``f3`` is a pattern binding,
+   and so ``f3`` is a fresh variable brought into scope by the pattern,
+   not connected with top level ``f3``.
+   Then type variable ``a`` is not in scope of the right-hand side of ``Just f3 = ...``.
+
+.. _exp-type-sigs:
+
+Expression type signatures
+--------------------------
+
+An expression type signature that has *explicit* quantification (using
+``forall``) brings into scope the explicitly-quantified type variables,
+in the annotated expression. For example: ::
+
+    f = runST ( (op >>= \(x :: STRef s Int) -> g x) :: forall s. ST s Bool )
+
+Here, the type signature ``forall s. ST s Bool`` brings the type
+variable ``s`` into scope, in the annotated expression
+``(op >>= \(x :: STRef s Int) -> g x)``.
+
+.. _pattern-type-sigs:
+
+Pattern type signatures
+-----------------------
+
+A type signature may occur in any pattern; this is a *pattern type
+signature*. For example: ::
+
+    -- f and g assume that 'a' is already in scope
+    f = \(x::Int, y::a) -> x
+
+    g (x::a) = x
+
+    h ((x,y) :: (Int,Bool)) = (y,x)
+
+In the case where all the type variables in the pattern type signature
+are already in scope (i.e. bound by the enclosing context), matters are
+simple: the signature simply constrains the type of the pattern in the
+obvious way.
+
+Unlike expression and declaration type signatures, pattern type
+signatures are not implicitly generalised. The pattern in a *pattern
+binding* may only mention type variables that are already in scope. For
+example: ::
+
+    f :: forall a. [a] -> (Int, [a])
+    f xs = (n, zs)
+      where
+        (ys::[a], n) = (reverse xs, length xs) -- OK
+        (zs::[a])    = xs ++ ys                     -- OK
+
+        Just (v::b)  = ...  -- Not OK; b is not in scope
+
+Here, the pattern signatures for ``ys`` and ``zs`` are fine, but the one
+for ``v`` is not because ``b`` is not in scope.
+
+However, in all patterns *other* than pattern bindings, a pattern type
+signature may mention a type variable that is not in scope; in this
+case, *the signature brings that type variable into scope*. For example: ::
+
+    -- same f and g as above, now assuming that 'a' is not already in scope
+    f = \(x::Int, y::a) -> x           -- 'a' is in scope on RHS of ->
+
+    g (x::a) = x :: a
+
+    hh (Just (v :: b)) = v :: b
+
+The pattern type signature makes the type variable available on the right-hand side of the equation.
+
+Bringing type variables into scope is particularly important
+for existential data constructors. For example: ::
+
+    data T = forall a. MkT [a]
+
+    k :: T -> T
+    k (MkT [t::a]) =
+        MkT t3
+      where
+        (t3::[a]) = [t,t,t]
+
+Here, the pattern type signature ``[t::a]`` mentions a lexical type
+variable that is not already in scope. Indeed, it *must not* already be in
+scope, because it is bound by the pattern match.
+The effect is to bring it into scope,
+standing for the existentially-bound type variable.
+
+It does seem odd that the existentially-bound type variable *must not*
+be already in scope. Contrast that usually name-bindings merely shadow
+(make a 'hole') in a same-named outer variable's scope.
+But we must have *some* way to bring such type variables into scope,
+else we could not name existentially-bound type variables
+in subsequent type signatures.
+
+Compare the two (identical) definitions for examples ``f``, ``g``;
+they are both legal whether or not ``a`` is already in scope.
+They differ in that *if* ``a`` is already in scope, the signature constrains
+the pattern, rather than the pattern binding the variable.
+
+.. _cls-inst-scoped-tyvars:
+
+Class and instance declarations
+-------------------------------
+
+The type variables in the head of a ``class`` or ``instance``
+declaration scope over the methods defined in the ``where`` part. You do
+not even need an explicit ``forall`` (although you are allowed an explicit
+``forall`` in an ``instance`` declaration; see :ref:`explicit-foralls`).
+For example: ::
+
+      class C a where
+        op :: [a] -> a
+
+        op xs = let ys::[a]
+                    ys = reverse xs
+                in
+                head ys
+
+      instance C b => C [b] where
+        op xs = reverse (head (xs :: [[b]]))
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/special_builtin.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/special_builtin.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..939b969
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/special_builtin.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+.. _special-ids:
+
+Special built-in functions
+==========================
+
+GHC has a few built-in functions with special behaviour. In particular:
+
+-  :base-ref:`GHC.Exts.inline` allows control over inlining on a per-call-site basis.
+
+-  :base-ref:`GHC.Exts.lazy` restrains the strictness analyser.
+
+-  :base-ref:`GHC.Exts.oneShot` gives a hint to the compiler about how often a
+   function is being called.
+
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/standalone_deriving.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/standalone_deriving.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e508595
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/standalone_deriving.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,115 @@
+.. _stand-alone-deriving:
+
+Stand-alone deriving declarations
+---------------------------------
+
+.. extension:: StandaloneDeriving
+    :shortdesc: Enable standalone deriving.
+
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Allow the use of stand-alone ``deriving`` declarations.
+
+GHC allows stand-alone ``deriving`` declarations, enabled by
+:extension:`StandaloneDeriving`: ::
+
+      data Foo a = Bar a | Baz String
+
+      deriving instance Eq a => Eq (Foo a)
+
+The syntax is identical to that of an ordinary instance declaration
+apart from (a) the keyword ``deriving``, and (b) the absence of the
+``where`` part.
+
+However, standalone deriving differs from a ``deriving`` clause in a
+number of important ways:
+
+-  The standalone deriving declaration does not need to be in the same
+   module as the data type declaration. (But be aware of the dangers of
+   orphan instances (:ref:`orphan-modules`).
+
+-  In most cases, you must supply an explicit context (in the example the
+   context is ``(Eq a)``), exactly as you would in an ordinary instance
+   declaration. (In contrast, in a ``deriving`` clause attached to a
+   data type declaration, the context is inferred.)
+
+   The exception to this rule is that the context of a standalone deriving
+   declaration can infer its context when a single, extra-wildcards constraint
+   is used as the context, such as in: ::
+
+         deriving instance _ => Eq (Foo a)
+
+   This is essentially the same as if you had written ``deriving Eq`` after
+   the declaration for ``data Foo a``. Using this feature requires the use of
+   :extension:`PartialTypeSignatures` (:ref:`partial-type-signatures`).
+
+-  Unlike a ``deriving`` declaration attached to a ``data`` declaration,
+   the instance can be more specific than the data type (assuming you
+   also use :extension:`FlexibleInstances`, :ref:`instance-rules`). Consider
+   for example ::
+
+         data Foo a = Bar a | Baz String
+
+         deriving instance Eq a => Eq (Foo [a])
+         deriving instance Eq a => Eq (Foo (Maybe a))
+
+   This will generate a derived instance for ``(Foo [a])`` and
+   ``(Foo (Maybe a))``, but other types such as ``(Foo (Int,Bool))``
+   will not be an instance of ``Eq``.
+
+-  Unlike a ``deriving`` declaration attached to a ``data`` declaration,
+   GHC does not restrict the form of the data type. Instead, GHC simply
+   generates the appropriate boilerplate code for the specified class,
+   and typechecks it. If there is a type error, it is your problem. (GHC
+   will show you the offending code if it has a type error.)
+
+   The merit of this is that you can derive instances for GADTs and
+   other exotic data types, providing only that the boilerplate code
+   does indeed typecheck. For example: ::
+
+         data T a where
+            T1 :: T Int
+            T2 :: T Bool
+
+         deriving instance Show (T a)
+
+   In this example, you cannot say ``... deriving( Show )`` on the data
+   type declaration for ``T``, because ``T`` is a GADT, but you *can*
+   generate the instance declaration using stand-alone deriving.
+
+   The down-side is that, if the boilerplate code fails to typecheck,
+   you will get an error message about that code, which you did not
+   write. Whereas, with a ``deriving`` clause the side-conditions are
+   necessarily more conservative, but any error message may be more
+   comprehensible.
+
+-  Under most circumstances, you cannot use standalone deriving to create an
+   instance for a data type whose constructors are not all in scope. This is
+   because the derived instance would generate code that uses the constructors
+   behind the scenes, which would break abstraction.
+
+   The one exception to this rule is :extension:`DeriveAnyClass`, since
+   deriving an instance via :extension:`DeriveAnyClass` simply generates
+   an empty instance declaration, which does not require the use of any
+   constructors. See the `deriving any class <#derive-any-class>`__ section
+   for more details.
+
+In other ways, however, a standalone deriving obeys the same rules as
+ordinary deriving:
+
+-  A ``deriving instance`` declaration must obey the same rules
+   concerning form and termination as ordinary instance declarations,
+   controlled by the same flags; see :ref:`instance-decls`.
+
+-  The stand-alone syntax is generalised for newtypes in exactly the
+   same way that ordinary ``deriving`` clauses are generalised
+   (:ref:`newtype-deriving`). For example: ::
+
+         newtype Foo a = MkFoo (State Int a)
+
+         deriving instance MonadState Int Foo
+
+   GHC always treats the *last* parameter of the instance (``Foo`` in
+   this example) as the type whose instance is being derived.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/static_pointers.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/static_pointers.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b780f07
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/static_pointers.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,143 @@
+.. _static-pointers:
+
+Static pointers
+===============
+
+.. index::
+   single: Static pointers
+
+.. extension:: StaticPointers
+    :shortdesc: Enable static pointers.
+
+    :since: 7.10.1
+
+    Allow use of static pointer syntax.
+
+The language extension :extension:`StaticPointers` adds a new syntactic form
+``static e``, which stands for a reference to the closed expression ⟨e⟩.
+This reference is stable and portable, in the sense that it remains
+valid across different processes on possibly different machines. Thus, a
+process can create a reference and send it to another process that can
+resolve it to ⟨e⟩.
+
+With this extension turned on, ``static`` is no longer a valid
+identifier.
+
+Static pointers were first proposed in the paper `Towards Haskell in the
+cloud <http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/people/simonpj/papers/parallel/remote.pdf>`__,
+Jeff Epstein, Andrew P. Black and Simon Peyton-Jones, Proceedings of the
+4th ACM Symposium on Haskell, pp. 118-129, ACM, 2011.
+
+.. _using-static-pointers:
+
+Using static pointers
+---------------------
+
+Each reference is given a key which can be used to locate it at runtime
+with :base-ref:`GHC.StaticPtr.unsafeLookupStaticPtr`
+which uses a global and immutable table called the Static Pointer Table.
+The compiler includes entries in this table for all static forms found
+in the linked modules. The value can be obtained from the reference via
+:base-ref:`GHC.StaticPtr.deRefStaticPtr`.
+
+The body ``e`` of a ``static e`` expression must be a closed expression. Where
+we say an expression is *closed* when all of its free (type) variables are
+closed. And a variable is *closed* if it is let-bound to a *closed* expression
+and its type is *closed* as well. And a type is *closed* if it has no free
+variables.
+
+All of the following are permissible: ::
+
+    inc :: Int -> Int
+    inc x = x + 1
+
+    ref1 = static 1
+    ref2 = static inc
+    ref3 = static (inc 1)
+    ref4 = static ((\x -> x + 1) (1 :: Int))
+    ref5 y = static (let x = 1 in x)
+    ref6 y = let x = 1 in static x
+
+While the following definitions are rejected: ::
+
+    ref7 y = let x = y in static x    -- x is not closed
+    ref8 y = static (let x = 1 in y)  -- y is not let-bound
+    ref8 (y :: a) = let x = undefined :: a
+                     in static x      -- x has a non-closed type
+
+.. note::
+
+    While modules loaded in GHCi with the :ghci-cmd:`:load` command may use
+    :extension:`StaticPointers` and ``static`` expressions, statements
+    entered on the REPL may not. This is a limitation of GHCi; see
+    :ghc-ticket:`12356` for details.
+
+.. note::
+
+    The set of keys used for locating static pointers in the Static Pointer
+    Table is not guaranteed to remain stable for different program binaries.
+    Or in other words, only processes launched from the same program binary
+    are guaranteed to use the same set of keys.
+
+.. _typechecking-static-pointers:
+
+Static semantics of static pointers
+-----------------------------------
+
+Informally, if we have a closed expression ::
+
+    e :: forall a_1 ... a_n . t
+
+the static form is of type ::
+
+    static e :: (IsStatic p, Typeable a_1, ... , Typeable a_n) => p t
+
+
+A static form determines a value of type ``StaticPtr t``, but just
+like ``OverloadedLists`` and ``OverloadedStrings``, this literal
+expression is overloaded to allow lifting a ``StaticPtr`` into another
+type implicitly, via the ``IsStatic`` class: ::
+
+    class IsStatic p where
+        fromStaticPtr :: StaticPtr a -> p a
+
+The only predefined instance is the obvious one that does nothing: ::
+
+    instance IsStatic StaticPtr where
+        fromStaticPtr sptr = sptr
+
+See :base-ref:`GHC.StaticPtr.IsStatic`.
+
+Furthermore, type ``t`` is constrained to have a ``Typeable`` instance.
+The following are therefore illegal: ::
+
+    static show                    -- No Typeable instance for (Show a => a -> String)
+    static Control.Monad.ST.runST  -- No Typeable instance for ((forall s. ST s a) -> a)
+
+That being said, with the appropriate use of wrapper datatypes, the
+above limitations induce no loss of generality: ::
+
+    {-# LANGUAGE ConstraintKinds           #-}
+    {-# LANGUAGE ExistentialQuantification #-}
+    {-# LANGUAGE Rank2Types                #-}
+    {-# LANGUAGE StandaloneDeriving        #-}
+    {-# LANGUAGE StaticPointers            #-}
+
+    import Control.Monad.ST
+    import Data.Typeable
+    import GHC.StaticPtr
+
+    data Dict c = c => Dict
+
+    g1 :: Typeable a => StaticPtr (Dict (Show a) -> a -> String)
+    g1 = static (\Dict -> show)
+
+    data Rank2Wrapper f = R2W (forall s. f s)
+      deriving Typeable
+    newtype Flip f a s = Flip { unFlip :: f s a }
+      deriving Typeable
+
+    g2 :: Typeable a => StaticPtr (Rank2Wrapper (Flip ST a) -> a)
+    g2 = static (\(R2W f) -> runST (unFlip f))
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/stm.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/stm.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..efa7a01
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/stm.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+Software Transactional Memory
+-----------------------------
+
+GHC now supports a new way to coordinate the activities of Concurrent
+Haskell threads, called Software Transactional Memory (STM). The `STM
+papers <https://wiki.haskell.org/Research_papers/Parallelism_and_concurrency#Lock_free_data_structures_and_transactional_memory>`__
+are an excellent introduction to what STM is, and how to use it.
+
+The main library you need to use is the `stm
+library <http://hackage.haskell.org/package/stm>`__. The main features
+supported are these:
+
+-  Atomic blocks.
+
+-  Transactional variables.
+
+-  Operations for composing transactions: ``retry``, and ``orElse``.
+
+-  Data invariants.
+
+All these features are described in the papers mentioned earlier.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/stolen_syntax.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/stolen_syntax.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..746daeb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/stolen_syntax.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,95 @@
+.. _syntax-stolen:
+
+Summary of stolen syntax
+------------------------
+
+Turning on an option that enables special syntax *might* cause working
+Haskell 98 code to fail to compile, perhaps because it uses a variable
+name which has become a reserved word. This section lists the syntax
+that is "stolen" by language extensions. We use notation and nonterminal
+names from the Haskell 98 lexical syntax (see the Haskell 98 Report). We
+only list syntax changes here that might affect existing working
+programs (i.e. "stolen" syntax). Many of these extensions will also
+enable new context-free syntax, but in all cases programs written to use
+the new syntax would not be compilable without the option enabled.
+
+There are two classes of special syntax:
+
+-  New reserved words and symbols: character sequences which are no
+   longer available for use as identifiers in the program.
+
+-  Other special syntax: sequences of characters that have a different
+   meaning when this particular option is turned on.
+
+The following syntax is stolen:
+
+``forall``
+    .. index::
+       single: forall
+
+    Stolen (in types) by default (see :ref:`infelicities-lexical`). ``forall`` is
+    a reserved keyword and never a type variable, in accordance with `GHC Proposal #43
+    <https://github.com/ghc-proposals/ghc-proposals/blob/master/proposals/0043-forall-keyword.rst>`__.
+
+
+``mdo``
+    .. index::
+       single: mdo
+
+    Stolen by: :extension:`RecursiveDo`
+
+``foreign``
+    .. index::
+       single: foreign
+
+    Stolen by: :extension:`ForeignFunctionInterface`
+
+``rec``, ``proc``, ``-<``, ``>-``, ``-<<``, ``>>-``, ``(|``, ``|)``
+    .. index::
+       single: proc
+
+    Stolen by: :extension:`Arrows`
+
+``?varid``
+    .. index::
+       single: implicit parameters
+
+    Stolen by: :extension:`ImplicitParams`
+
+``[|``, ``[e|``, ``[p|``, ``[d|``, ``[t|``, ``[||``, ``[e||``
+    .. index::
+       single: Quasi-quotes
+
+    Stolen by: :extension:`QuasiQuotes`. Moreover, this introduces an ambiguity
+    with list comprehension syntax. See the
+    :ref:`discussion on quasi-quoting <quasi-quotes-list-comprehension-ambiguity>`
+    for details.
+
+``$(``, ``$$(``, ``$varid``, ``$$varid``
+    .. index::
+       single: Template Haskell
+
+    Stolen by: :extension:`TemplateHaskell`
+
+``[varid|``
+    .. index::
+       single: quasi-quotation
+
+    Stolen by: :extension:`QuasiQuotes`
+
+⟨varid⟩, ``#``\ ⟨char⟩, ``#``, ⟨string⟩, ``#``, ⟨integer⟩, ``#``, ⟨float⟩, ``#``, ⟨float⟩, ``##``
+    Stolen by: :extension:`MagicHash`
+
+``(#``, ``#)``
+    Stolen by: :extension:`UnboxedTuples`
+
+⟨varid⟩, ``!``, ⟨varid⟩
+    Stolen by: :extension:`BangPatterns`
+
+``pattern``
+    Stolen by: :extension:`PatternSynonyms`
+
+``static``
+    Stolen by: :extension:`StaticPointers`
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/strict.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/strict.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..99ba99d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/strict.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,497 @@
+.. _bang-patterns:
+
+.. _strict-haskell:
+
+Bang patterns and Strict Haskell
+================================
+
+.. index::
+   single: strict haskell
+
+.. index::
+   single: Bang patterns
+
+In high-performance Haskell code (e.g. numeric code) eliminating
+thunks from an inner loop can be a huge win.
+GHC supports three extensions to allow the programmer to specify
+use of strict (call-by-value) evaluation rather than lazy (call-by-need)
+evaluation.
+
+- Bang patterns (:extension:`BangPatterns`) makes pattern matching and
+  let bindings stricter.
+
+- Strict data types (:extension:`StrictData`) makes constructor fields
+  strict by default, on a per-module basis.
+
+- Strict pattern (:extension:`Strict`) makes all patterns and let bindings
+  strict by default, on a per-module basis.
+
+The latter two extensions are simply a way to avoid littering high-performance
+code with bang patterns, making it harder to read.
+
+Bang patterns and strict matching do not affect the type system in any way.
+
+.. _bang-patterns-informal:
+
+Bang patterns
+-------------
+
+.. extension:: BangPatterns
+    :shortdesc: Enable bang patterns.
+
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Allow use of bang pattern syntax.
+
+GHC supports an extension of pattern matching called *bang patterns*,
+written ``!pat``. Bang patterns are under consideration for Haskell
+Prime. The `Haskell prime feature
+description <http://ghc.haskell.org/trac/haskell-prime/wiki/BangPatterns>`__
+contains more discussion and examples than the material below.
+
+The main idea is to add a single new production to the syntax of
+patterns: ::
+
+      pat ::= !pat
+
+Matching an expression ``e`` against a pattern ``!p`` is done by first
+evaluating ``e`` (to WHNF) and then matching the result against ``p``.
+Example: ::
+
+    f1 !x = True
+
+This definition makes ``f1`` is strict in ``x``, whereas without the
+bang it would be lazy. Bang patterns can be nested of course: ::
+
+    f2 (!x, y) = [x,y]
+
+Here, ``f2`` is strict in ``x`` but not in ``y``.
+
+Note the following points:
+
+- A bang only really has
+  an effect if it precedes a variable or wild-card pattern: ::
+
+    f3 !(x,y) = [x,y]
+    f4 (x,y)  = [x,y]
+
+  Here, ``f3`` and ``f4`` are identical; putting a bang before a pattern
+  that forces evaluation anyway does nothing.
+
+- A bang pattern is allowed in a let or where clause, and makes the binding
+  strict.  For example: ::
+
+    let !x = e in body
+    let !(p,q) = e in body
+
+  In both cases ``e`` is evaluated before starting to evaluate ``body``.
+
+  However, *nested* bangs in a let/where pattern binding behave uniformly with all
+  other forms of pattern matching. For example ::
+
+    let (!x,[y]) = e in b
+
+  is equivalent to this: ::
+
+    let { t = case e of (x,[y]) -> x `seq` (x,y)
+          x = fst t
+          y = snd t }
+    in b
+
+  The binding is lazy, but when either ``x`` or ``y`` is evaluated by
+  ``b`` the entire pattern is matched, including forcing the evaluation of
+  ``x``.
+
+  See :ref:`Semantics of let bindings with bang patterns <recursive-and-polymorphic-let-bindings>` for
+  the detailed semantics.
+
+- A pattern with a bang at the outermost level is not allowed at the top
+  level of a module.
+
+- Bang patterns work in ``case`` expressions too, of course: ::
+
+    g5 x = let y = f x in body
+    g6 x = case f x of { y -> body }
+    g7 x = case f x of { !y -> body }
+
+  The functions ``g5`` and ``g6`` mean exactly the same thing. But ``g7``
+  evaluates ``(f x)``, binds ``y`` to the result, and then evaluates
+  ``body``.
+
+- There is one problem with syntactic ambiguity. Consider: ::
+
+    f !x = 3
+
+  Is this a definition of the infix function "``(!)``", or of the "``f``" with
+  a bang pattern? GHC resolves this ambiguity by looking at the surrounding
+  whitespace: ::
+
+    a ! b = ...   -- infix operator
+    a !b = ...    -- bang pattern
+
+  See `GHC Proposal #229 <https://github.com/ghc-proposals/ghc-proposals/blob/master/proposals/0229-whitespace-bang-patterns.rst>`__
+  for the precise rules.
+
+
+.. _strict-data:
+
+Strict-by-default data types
+----------------------------
+
+.. extension:: StrictData
+    :shortdesc: Enable default strict datatype fields.
+
+    :since: 8.0.1
+
+    Make fields of data types defined in the current module strict by default.
+
+Informally the ``StrictData`` language extension switches data type
+declarations to be strict by default allowing fields to be lazy by
+adding a ``~`` in front of the field.
+
+When the user writes ::
+
+          data T = C a
+          data T' = C' ~a
+
+we interpret it as if they had written ::
+
+          data T = C !a
+          data T' = C' a
+
+The extension only affects definitions in this module.
+
+The ``~`` annotation must be written in prefix form::
+
+   data T = MkT ~Int   -- valid
+   data T = MkT ~ Int  -- invalid
+
+See `GHC Proposal #229 <https://github.com/ghc-proposals/ghc-proposals/blob/master/proposals/0229-whitespace-bang-patterns.rst>`__
+for the precise rules.
+
+.. _strict:
+
+Strict-by-default pattern bindings
+----------------------------------
+
+.. extension:: Strict
+    :shortdesc: Make bindings in the current module strict by default.
+
+    :implies: :extension:`StrictData`
+    :since: 8.0.1
+
+    Make bindings in the current module strict by default.
+
+Informally the ``Strict`` language extension switches functions, data
+types, and bindings to be strict by default, allowing optional laziness
+by adding ``~`` in front of a variable. This essentially reverses the
+present situation where laziness is default and strictness can be
+optionally had by adding ``!`` in front of a variable.
+
+``Strict`` implies :ref:`StrictData <strict-data>`.
+
+-  **Function definitions**
+
+   When the user writes ::
+
+       f x = ...
+
+   we interpret it as if they had written ::
+
+       f !x = ...
+
+   Adding ``~`` in front of ``x`` gives the regular lazy behavior.
+
+   Turning patterns into irrefutable ones requires ``~(~p)`` when ``Strict`` is enabled.
+
+
+
+-  **Let/where bindings**
+
+   When the user writes ::
+
+     let x = ...
+     let pat = ...
+
+   we interpret it as if they had written ::
+
+     let !x = ...
+     let !pat = ...
+
+   Adding ``~`` in front of ``x`` gives the regular lazy
+   behavior.
+   The general rule is that we add an implicit bang on the outermost pattern,
+   unless disabled with ``~``.
+
+-  **Pattern matching in case expressions, lambdas, do-notation, etc**
+
+   The outermost pattern of all pattern matches gets an implicit bang,
+   unless disabled with ``~``.
+   This applies to case expressions, patterns in lambda, do-notation,
+   list comprehension, and so on.
+   For example ::
+
+       case x of (a,b) -> rhs
+
+   is interpreted as ::
+
+       case x of !(a,b) -> rhs
+
+   Since the semantics of pattern matching in case expressions is
+   strict, this usually has no effect whatsoever. But it does make a
+   difference in the degenerate case of variables and newtypes. So ::
+
+       case x of y -> rhs
+
+   is lazy in Haskell, but with ``Strict`` is interpreted as ::
+
+       case x of !y -> rhs
+
+   which evaluates ``x``. Similarly, if ``newtype Age = MkAge Int``, then ::
+
+       case x of MkAge i -> rhs
+
+   is lazy in Haskell; but with ``Strict`` the added bang makes it
+   strict.
+
+   Similarly ::
+
+      \ x -> body
+      do { x <- rhs; blah }
+      [ e | x <- rhs; blah }
+
+   all get implicit bangs on the ``x`` pattern.
+
+-  **Nested patterns**
+
+   Notice that we do *not* put bangs on nested patterns. For
+   example ::
+
+     let (p,q) = if flob then (undefined, undefined) else (True, False)
+     in ...
+
+   will behave like ::
+
+     let !(p,q) = if flob then (undefined, undefined) else (True,False)
+     in ...
+
+   which will strictly evaluate the right hand side, and bind ``p``
+   and ``q`` to the components of the pair. But the pair itself is
+   lazy (unless we also compile the ``Prelude`` with ``Strict``; see
+   :ref:`strict-modularity` below). So ``p`` and ``q`` may end up bound to
+   undefined. See also :ref:`recursive-and-polymorphic-let-bindings` below.
+
+-  **Top level bindings**
+
+   are unaffected by ``Strict``. For example: ::
+
+       x = factorial 20
+       (y,z) = if x > 10 then True else False
+
+   Here ``x`` and the pattern binding ``(y,z)`` remain lazy. Reason:
+   there is no good moment to force them, until first use.
+
+-  **Newtypes**
+
+   There is no effect on newtypes, which simply rename existing types.
+   For example: ::
+
+       newtype T = C a
+       f (C x)  = rhs1
+       g !(C x) = rhs2
+
+   In ordinary Haskell, ``f`` is lazy in its argument and hence in
+   ``x``; and ``g`` is strict in its argument and hence also strict in
+   ``x``. With ``Strict``, both become strict because ``f``'s argument
+   gets an implicit bang.
+
+
+.. _strict-modularity:
+
+Modularity
+----------
+
+``Strict`` and ``StrictData`` only affects definitions in the module
+they are used in. Functions and data types imported from other modules
+are unaffected. For example, we won't evaluate the argument to
+``Just`` before applying the constructor.  Similarly we won't evaluate
+the first argument to ``Data.Map.findWithDefault`` before applying the
+function.
+
+This is crucial to preserve correctness. Entities defined in other
+modules might rely on laziness for correctness (whether functional or
+performance).
+
+Tuples, lists, ``Maybe``, and all the other types from ``Prelude``
+continue to have their existing, lazy, semantics.
+
+.. _bang-patterns-sem:
+.. _recursive-and-polymorphic-let-bindings:
+
+Dynamic semantics of bang patterns
+----------------------------------
+
+The semantics of Haskell pattern matching is described in `Section
+3.17.2 <http://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/exps.html#sect3.17.2>`__ of
+the Haskell Report. To this description add one extra item 10, saying:
+
+-  Matching the pattern ``!pat`` against a value ``v`` behaves as
+   follows:
+
+   -  if ``v`` is bottom, the match diverges
+
+   -  otherwise, ``pat`` is matched against ``v``
+
+Similarly, in Figure 4 of `Section
+3.17.3 <http://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/exps.html#sect3.17.3>`__,
+add a new case (t): ::
+
+    case v of { !pat -> e; _ -> e' }
+       = v `seq` case v of { pat -> e; _ -> e' }
+
+That leaves let expressions, whose translation is given in `Section
+3.12 <http://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/exps.html#sect3.12>`__ of the
+Haskell Report.
+Replace the "Translation" there with the following one.  Given
+``let { bind1 ... bindn } in body``:
+
+.. admonition:: FORCE
+
+    Replace any binding ``!p = e`` with ``v = case e of p -> (x1, ..., xn); (x1, ..., xn) = v`` and replace
+    ``body`` with ``v seq body``, where ``v`` is fresh. This translation works fine if
+    ``p`` is already a variable ``x``, but can obviously be optimised by not
+    introducing a fresh variable ``v``.
+
+.. admonition:: SPLIT
+
+    Replace any binding ``p = e``, where ``p`` is not a variable, with
+    ``v = e; x1 = case v of p -> x1; ...; xn = case v of p -> xn``, where
+    ``v`` is fresh and ``x1``.. ``xn`` are the bound variables of ``p``.
+    Again if ``e`` is a variable, this can be optimised by not introducing a
+    fresh variable.
+
+The result will be a (possibly) recursive set of bindings, binding
+only simple variables on the left hand side. (One could go one step
+further, as in the Haskell Report and make the recursive bindings
+non-recursive using ``fix``, but we do not do so in Core, and it only
+obfuscates matters, so we do not do so here.)
+
+The translation is carefully crafted to make bang patterns meaningful
+for recursive and polymorphic bindings as well as straightforward
+non-recursive bindings.
+
+Here are some examples of how this translation works. The first
+expression of each sequence is Haskell source; the subsequent ones are
+Core.
+
+Here is a simple non-recursive case: ::
+
+    let x :: Int     -- Non-recursive
+        !x = factorial y
+    in body
+
+    ===> (FORCE)
+        let x = factorial y in x `seq` body
+
+    ===> (inline seq)
+        let x = factorial y in case x of x -> body
+
+    ===> (inline x)
+        case factorial y of x -> body
+
+Same again, only with a pattern binding: ::
+
+    let !(Just x, Left y) = e in body
+
+    ===> (FORCE)
+        let v = case e of (Just x, Left y) -> (x,y)
+            (x,y) = v
+        in v `seq` body
+
+    ===> (SPLIT)
+        let v = case e of (Just x, Left y) -> (x,y)
+            x = case v of (x,y) -> x
+            y = case v of (x,y) -> y
+        in v `seq` body
+
+    ===> (inline seq, float x,y bindings inwards)
+        let v = case e of (Just x, Left y) -> (x,y)
+        in case v of v -> let x = case v of (x,y) -> x
+                              y = case v of (x,y) -> y
+                          in body
+
+    ===> (fluff up v's pattern; this is a standard Core optimisation)
+        let v = case e of (Just x, Left y) -> (x,y)
+        in case v of v@(p,q) -> let x = case v of (x,y) -> x
+                                    y = case v of (x,y) -> y
+                                in body
+
+    ===> (case of known constructor)
+        let v = case e of (Just x, Left y) -> (x,y)
+        in case v of v@(p,q) -> let x = p
+                                    y = q
+                                in body
+
+    ===> (inline x,y, v)
+        case (case e of (Just x, Left y) -> (x,y) of
+            (p,q) -> body[p/x, q/y]
+
+    ===> (case of case)
+        case e of (Just x, Left y) -> body[p/x, q/y]
+
+The final form is just what we want: a simple case expression.
+
+Here is a recursive case ::
+
+    letrec xs :: [Int]  -- Recursive
+            !xs = factorial y : xs
+    in body
+
+    ===> (FORCE)
+        letrec xs = factorial y : xs in xs `seq` body
+
+    ===> (inline seq)
+        letrec xs = factorial y : xs in case xs of xs -> body
+
+    ===> (eliminate case of value)
+        letrec xs = factorial y : xs in body
+
+and a polymorphic one: ::
+
+    let f :: forall a. [a] -> [a]    -- Polymorphic
+        !f = fst (reverse, True)
+    in body
+
+    ===> (FORCE)
+        let f = /\a. fst (reverse a, True) in f `seq` body
+    ===> (inline seq, inline f)
+        case (/\a. fst (reverse a, True)) of f -> body
+
+Notice that the ``seq`` is added only in the translation to Core
+If we did it in Haskell source, thus ::
+
+   let f = ... in f `seq` body
+
+then ``f``\ 's polymorphic type would get instantiated, so the Core
+translation would be ::
+
+   let f = ... in f Any `seq` body
+
+
+When overloading is involved, the results might be slightly counter
+intuitive: ::
+
+    let f :: forall a. Eq a => a -> [a] -> Bool    -- Overloaded
+        !f = fst (member, True)
+    in body
+
+    ===> (FORCE)
+        let f = /\a \(d::Eq a). fst (member, True) in f `seq` body
+
+    ===> (inline seq, case of value)
+        let f = /\a \(d::Eq a). fst (member, True) in body
+
+Note that the bang has no effect at all in this case
+
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/syntax.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/syntax.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9fc8d36
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/syntax.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+.. _syntax-extns:
+
+Syntax
+======
+
+.. toctree::
+    :maxdepth: 1
+
+    unicode_syntax
+    magic_hash
+    recursive_do
+    applicative_do
+    parallel_list_comprehensions
+    generalised_list_comprehensions
+    monad_comprehensions
+    monadfail_desugaring
+    overloaded_lists
+    rebindable_syntax
+    tuple_sections
+    lambda_case
+    empty_case
+    multiway_if
+    local_fixity_decls
+    block_arguments
+    typed_holes
+    arrows
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/table.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/table.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ca43dd9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/table.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+Overview of all language extensions
+-----------------------------------
+
+GHC supports these language extensions:
+
+.. extension-print::
+    :type: table
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/template_haskell.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/template_haskell.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b7e0e4d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/template_haskell.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,772 @@
+.. _template-haskell:
+
+Template Haskell
+================
+
+Template Haskell allows you to do compile-time meta-programming in
+Haskell. The background to the main technical innovations is discussed
+in "`Template Meta-programming for
+Haskell <http://research.microsoft.com/~simonpj/papers/meta-haskell/>`__"
+(Proc Haskell Workshop 2002).
+
+The `Template Haskell <http://www.haskell.org/haskellwiki/Template_Haskell>`__
+page on the GHC Wiki has a wealth of information. You may also consult the
+:th-ref:`Haddock reference documentation <Language.Haskell.TH.>`.
+Many changes to the original
+design are described in `Notes on Template Haskell version
+2 <https://www.haskell.org/ghc/docs/papers/th2.ps>`__.
+Not all of these changes are in GHC, however.
+
+The first example from that paper is set out below (:ref:`th-example`)
+as a worked example to help get you started.
+
+The documentation here describes the realisation of Template Haskell in
+GHC. It is not detailed enough to understand Template Haskell; see the
+`Wiki page <http://haskell.org/haskellwiki/Template_Haskell>`__.
+
+.. _th-syntax:
+
+Syntax
+------
+
+.. extension:: TemplateHaskell
+    :shortdesc: Enable Template Haskell.
+
+    :implies: :extension:`TemplateHaskellQuotes`
+    :since: 6.0. Typed splices introduced in GHC 7.8.1.
+
+    Enable Template Haskell's splice and quotation syntax.
+
+.. extension:: TemplateHaskellQuotes
+    :shortdesc: Enable quotation subset of
+        :ref:`Template Haskell <template-haskell>`.
+
+    :since: 8.0.1
+
+    Enable only Template Haskell's quotation syntax.
+
+Template Haskell has the following new syntactic constructions. You need to use
+the extension :extension:`TemplateHaskell` to switch these syntactic extensions on.
+Alternatively, the :extension:`TemplateHaskellQuotes` extension can be used to
+enable the quotation subset of Template Haskell (i.e. without splice syntax).
+The :extension:`TemplateHaskellQuotes` extension is considered safe under
+:ref:`safe-haskell` while :extension:`TemplateHaskell` is not.
+
+-  A splice is written ``$x``, where ``x`` is an arbitrary expression.
+   There must be no space between the "$" and the expression.
+   This use of "$" overrides its meaning as an infix operator, just as "M.x"
+   overrides the meaning of "." as an infix operator. If you want the
+   infix operator, put spaces around it.
+
+   A top-level splice can occur in place of
+
+   -  an expression; the spliced expression must have type ``Q Exp``
+
+   -  a pattern; the spliced pattern must have type ``Q Pat``
+
+   -  a type; the spliced expression must have type ``Q Type``
+
+   -  a list of declarations at top level; the spliced expression must
+      have type ``Q [Dec]``
+
+   Inside a splice you can only call functions defined in imported
+   modules, not functions defined elsewhere in the same module. Note
+   that declaration splices are not allowed anywhere except at top level
+   (outside any other declarations).
+
+   The ``Q`` monad is a monad defined in ``Language.Haskell.TH.Syntax`` which
+   supports several useful operations during code generation such as reporting
+   errors or looking up identifiers in the environment.
+
+-  A expression quotation is written in Oxford brackets, thus:
+
+   -  ``[| ... |]``, or ``[e| ... |]``, where the "..." is an
+      expression; the quotation has type ``Quote m => m Exp``.
+
+   -  ``[d| ... |]``, where the "..." is a list of top-level
+      declarations; the quotation has type ``Quote m => m [Dec]``.
+
+   -  ``[t| ... |]``, where the "..." is a type; the quotation has type
+      ``Quote m => m Type``.
+
+   -  ``[p| ... |]``, where the "..." is a pattern; the quotation has
+      type ``Quote m => m Pat``.
+
+   The ``Quote`` type class is the minimal interface necessary to implement
+   the desugaring of quotations. The ``Q`` monad is an instance of ``Quote`` but
+   contains many more operations which are not needed for defining quotations.
+
+   See :ref:`pts-where` for using partial type signatures in quotations.
+
+-  Splices can be nested inside quotation brackets. For example the fragment
+   representing ``1 + 2`` can be constructed using nested splices::
+
+    oneC, twoC, plusC  :: Quote m => m Exp
+    oneC = [| 1 |]
+
+    twoC = [| 2 |]
+
+    plusC = [| $oneC + $twoC |]
+
+- The precise type of a quotation depends on the types of the nested splices inside it::
+
+      -- Add a redundant constraint to demonstrate that constraints on the
+      -- monad used to build the representation are propagated when using nested
+      -- splices.
+      f :: (Quote m, C m) => m Exp
+      f = [| 5 | ]
+
+      -- f is used in a nested splice so the constraint on f, namely C, is propagated
+      -- to a constraint on the whole representation.
+      g :: (Quote m, C m) => m Exp
+      g = [| $f + $f |]
+
+   Remember, a top-level splice still requires its argument to be of type ``Q Exp``.
+   So then splicing in ``g`` will cause ``m`` to be instantiated to ``Q``::
+
+    h :: Int
+    h = $(g) -- m ~ Q
+
+
+-  A *typed* expression splice is written ``$$x``, where ``x`` is
+   is an arbitrary expression.
+
+   A top-level typed expression splice can occur in place of an expression; the
+   spliced expression must have type ``Q (TExp a)``
+
+-  A *typed* expression quotation is written as ``[|| ... ||]``, or
+   ``[e|| ... ||]``, where the "..." is an expression; if the "..."
+   expression has type ``a``, then the quotation has type
+   ``Quote m => m (TExp a)``.
+
+   Values of type ``TExp a`` may be converted to values of type ``Exp``
+   using the function ``unType :: TExp a -> Exp``.
+
+-  A quasi-quotation can appear in a pattern, type, expression, or
+   declaration context and is also written in Oxford brackets:
+
+   -  ``[varid| ... |]``, where the "..." is an arbitrary string; a full
+      description of the quasi-quotation facility is given in
+      :ref:`th-quasiquotation`.
+
+-  A name can be quoted with either one or two prefix single quotes:
+
+   -  ``'f`` has type ``Name``, and names the function ``f``. Similarly
+      ``'C`` has type ``Name`` and names the data constructor ``C``. In
+      general ``'``\ ⟨thing⟩ interprets ⟨thing⟩ in an expression
+      context.
+
+      A name whose second character is a single quote (sadly) cannot be
+      quoted in this way, because it will be parsed instead as a quoted
+      character. For example, if the function is called ``f'7`` (which
+      is a legal Haskell identifier), an attempt to quote it as ``'f'7``
+      would be parsed as the character literal ``'f'`` followed by the
+      numeric literal ``7``. There is no current escape mechanism in
+      this (unusual) situation.
+
+   -  ``''T`` has type ``Name``, and names the type constructor ``T``.
+      That is, ``''``\ ⟨thing⟩ interprets ⟨thing⟩ in a type context.
+
+   These ``Names`` can be used to construct Template Haskell
+   expressions, patterns, declarations etc. They may also be given as an
+   argument to the ``reify`` function.
+
+-  It is possible for a splice to expand to an expression that contain
+   names which are not in scope at the site of the splice. As an
+   example, consider the following code: ::
+
+       module Bar where
+
+       import Language.Haskell.TH
+
+       add1 :: Quote m => Int -> m Exp
+       add1 x = [| x + 1 |]
+
+   Now consider a splice using ``add1`` in a separate
+   module: ::
+
+       module Foo where
+
+       import Bar
+
+       two :: Int
+       two = $(add1 1)
+
+   Template Haskell cannot know what the argument to ``add1`` will be at the
+   function's definition site, so a lifting mechanism is used to promote
+   ``x`` into a value of type ``Quote m => m Exp``. This functionality is exposed to the
+   user as the ``Lift`` typeclass in the ``Language.Haskell.TH.Syntax``
+   module. If a type has a ``Lift`` instance, then any of its values can be
+   lifted to a Template Haskell expression: ::
+
+       class Lift t where
+           lift :: Quote m => t -> m Exp
+           liftTyped :: Quote m => t -> m (TExp t)
+
+   In general, if GHC sees an expression within Oxford brackets (e.g., ``[|
+   foo bar |]``, then GHC looks up each name within the brackets. If a name
+   is global (e.g., suppose ``foo`` comes from an import or a top-level
+   declaration), then the fully qualified name is used directly in the
+   quotation. If the name is local (e.g., suppose ``bar`` is bound locally in
+   the function definition ``mkFoo bar = [| foo bar |]``), then GHC uses
+   ``lift`` on it (so GHC pretends ``[| foo bar |]`` actually contains ``[|
+   foo $(lift bar) |]``). Local names, which are not in scope at splice
+   locations, are actually evaluated when the quotation is processed.
+
+   The ``template-haskell`` library provides ``Lift`` instances for many
+   common data types. Furthermore, it is possible to derive ``Lift``
+   instances automatically by using the :extension:`DeriveLift` language extension.
+   See :ref:`deriving-lift` for more information.
+
+-  You may omit the ``$(...)`` in a top-level declaration splice. Simply
+   writing an expression (rather than a declaration) implies a splice.
+   For example, you can write ::
+
+       module Foo where
+       import Bar
+
+       f x = x
+
+       $(deriveStuff 'f)   -- Uses the $(...) notation
+
+       g y = y+1
+
+       deriveStuff 'g      -- Omits the $(...)
+
+       h z = z-1
+
+   This abbreviation makes top-level declaration slices quieter and less
+   intimidating.
+
+-  Pattern splices introduce variable binders but scoping of variables in
+   expressions inside the pattern's scope is only checked when a splice is
+   run.  Note that pattern splices that occur outside of any quotation
+   brackets are run at compile time.  Pattern splices occurring inside a
+   quotation bracket are *not* run at compile time; they are run when the
+   bracket is spliced in, sometime later.  For example, ::
+
+       mkPat :: Quote m => m Pat
+       mkPat = [p| (x, y) |]
+
+       -- in another module:
+       foo :: (Char, String) -> String
+       foo $(mkPat) = x : z
+
+       bar :: Quote m => m Exp
+       bar = [| \ $(mkPat) -> x : w |]
+
+   will fail with ``z`` being out of scope in the definition of ``foo`` but it
+   will *not* fail with ``w`` being out of scope in the definition of ``bar``.
+   That will only happen when ``bar`` is spliced.
+
+-  A pattern quasiquoter *may* generate binders that scope over the
+   right-hand side of a definition because these binders are in scope
+   lexically. For example, given a quasiquoter ``haskell`` that parses
+   Haskell, in the following code, the ``y`` in the right-hand side of
+   ``f`` refers to the ``y`` bound by the ``haskell`` pattern
+   quasiquoter, *not* the top-level ``y = 7``. ::
+
+       y :: Int
+       y = 7
+
+       f :: Int -> Int -> Int
+       f n = \ [haskell|y|] -> y+n
+
+-  Top-level declaration splices break up a source file into
+   *declaration groups*. A *declaration group* is the group of
+   declarations created by a top-level declaration splice, plus those
+   following it, down to but not including the next top-level
+   declaration splice. N.B. only top-level splices delimit declaration
+   groups, not expression splices. The first declaration group in a module
+   includes all top-level definitions down to but not including the first
+   top-level declaration splice.
+
+   Each declaration group is mutually recursive only within the group.
+   Declaration groups can refer to definitions within previous groups,
+   but not later ones.
+
+   Accordingly, the type environment seen by ``reify`` includes all the
+   top-level declarations up to the end of the immediately preceding
+   declaration group, but no more.
+
+   Unlike normal declaration splices, declaration quasiquoters do not
+   cause a break. These quasiquoters are expanded before the rest of the
+   declaration group is processed, and the declarations they generate
+   are merged into the surrounding declaration group. Consequently, the
+   type environment seen by ``reify`` from a declaration quasiquoter
+   will not include anything from the quasiquoter's declaration group.
+
+   Concretely, consider the following code ::
+
+       module M where
+
+       import ...
+
+       f x = x
+
+       $(th1 4)
+
+       h y = k y y $(blah1)
+
+       [qq|blah|]
+
+       k x y z = x + y + z
+
+       $(th2 10)
+
+       w z = $(blah2)
+
+   In this example, a ``reify`` inside...
+
+   1. The splice ``$(th1 ...)`` would see the definition of ``f`` - the
+      splice is top-level and thus all definitions in the previous
+      declaration group are visible (that is, all definitions in the module
+      up-to, but not including, the splice itself).
+
+   2. The splice ``$(blah1)`` cannot refer to the function ``w`` - ``w`` is
+      part of a later declaration group, and thus invisible, similarly,
+      ``$(blah1)`` cannot see the definition of ``h`` (since it is part of
+      the same declaration group as ``$(blah1)``. However, the splice
+      ``$(blah1)`` can see the definition of ``f`` (since it is in the
+      immediately preceding declaration group).
+
+   3. The splice ``$(th2 ...)`` would see the definition of ``f``, all the
+      bindings created by ``$(th1 ...)``, the definition of ``h`` and all
+      bindings created by ``[qq|blah|]`` (they are all in previous
+      declaration groups).
+
+   4. The body of ``h`` *can* refer to the function ``k`` appearing on the
+      other side of the declaration quasiquoter, as quasiquoters do not
+      cause a declaration group to be broken up.
+
+   5. The ``qq`` quasiquoter would be able to see the definition of ``f``
+      from the preceding declaration group, but not the definitions of
+      ``h`` or ``k``, or any definitions from subsequent declaration
+      groups.
+
+   6. The splice ``$(blah2)`` would see the same definitions as the splice
+      ``$(th2 ...)`` (but *not* any bindings it creates).
+
+   Note that since an expression splice is unable to refer to declarations
+   in the same declaration group, we can introduce a top-level (empty)
+   splice to break up the declaration group ::
+
+       module M where
+
+       data D = C1 | C2
+
+       f1 = $(th1 ...)
+
+       $(return [])
+
+       f2 = $(th2 ...)
+
+   Here
+
+   1. The splice ``$(th1 ...)`` *cannot* refer to ``D`` - it is in the same
+      declaration group.
+   2. The declaration group containing ``D`` is terminated by the empty
+      top-level declaration splice ``$(return [])`` (recall, ``Q`` is a
+      Monad, so we may simply ``return`` the empty list of declarations).
+   3. Since the declaration group containing ``D`` is in the previous
+      declaration group, the splice ``$(th2 ...)`` *can* refer to ``D``.
+
+-  Expression quotations accept most Haskell language constructs.
+   However, there are some GHC-specific extensions which expression
+   quotations currently do not support, including
+
+   -  Recursive ``do``-statements (see :ghc-ticket:`1262`)
+
+   -  Type holes in typed splices (see :ghc-ticket:`10945` and
+      :ghc-ticket:`10946`)
+
+(Compared to the original paper, there are many differences of detail.
+The syntax for a declaration splice uses "``$``" not "``splice``". The type of
+the enclosed expression must be ``Quote m => m [Dec]``, not ``[Q Dec]``. Typed expression
+splices and quotations are supported.)
+
+.. ghc-flag:: -fenable-th-splice-warnings
+    :shortdesc: Generate warnings for Template Haskell splices
+    :type: dynamic
+    :reverse: -fno-enable-th-splices
+    :category: warnings
+
+    Template Haskell splices won't be checked for warnings, because the code
+    causing the warning might originate from a third-party library and possibly
+    was not written by the user. If you want to have warnings for splices
+    anyway, pass :ghc-flag:`-fenable-th-splice-warnings`.
+
+.. _th-usage:
+
+Using Template Haskell
+----------------------
+
+-  The data types and monadic constructor functions for Template Haskell
+   are in the library ``Language.Haskell.TH.Syntax``.
+
+-  You can only run a function at compile time if it is imported from
+   another module. That is, you can't define a function in a module, and
+   call it from within a splice in the same module. (It would make sense
+   to do so, but it's hard to implement.)
+
+-  You can only run a function at compile time if it is imported from
+   another module *that is not part of a mutually-recursive group of
+   modules that includes the module currently being compiled*.
+   Furthermore, all of the modules of the mutually-recursive group must
+   be reachable by non-SOURCE imports from the module where the splice
+   is to be run.
+
+   For example, when compiling module A, you can only run Template
+   Haskell functions imported from B if B does not import A (directly or
+   indirectly). The reason should be clear: to run B we must compile and
+   run A, but we are currently type-checking A.
+
+-  If you are building GHC from source, you need at least a stage-2
+   bootstrap compiler to run Template Haskell splices and quasi-quotes.
+   A stage-1 compiler will only accept regular quotes of Haskell.
+   Reason: TH splices and quasi-quotes compile and run a program, and
+   then looks at the result. So it's important that the program it
+   compiles produces results whose representations are identical to
+   those of the compiler itself.
+
+Template Haskell works in any mode (:ghc-flag:`--make`,
+:ghc-flag:`--interactive`, or file-at-a-time). There used to be a restriction to
+the former two, but that restriction has been lifted.
+
+.. _th-view-gen-code:
+
+Viewing Template Haskell generated code
+---------------------------------------
+
+The flag :ghc-flag:`-ddump-splices` shows the expansion of all top-level
+declaration splices, both typed and untyped, as they happen. As with all
+dump flags, the default is for this output to be sent to stdout. For a
+non-trivial program, you may be interested in combining this with the
+:ghc-flag:`-ddump-to-file` flag (see :ref:`dumping-output`. For each file using
+Template Haskell, this will show the output in a ``.dump-splices`` file.
+
+The flag :ghc-flag:`-dth-dec-file` dumps the expansions of all top-level
+TH declaration splices, both typed and untyped, in the file :file:`M.th.hs`
+for each module `M` being compiled. Note that other types of
+splices (expressions, types, and patterns) are not shown. Application
+developers can check this into their repository so that they can grep for
+identifiers that were defined in Template Haskell. This is similar to using
+:ghc-flag:`-ddump-to-file` with :ghc-flag:`-ddump-splices` but it always
+generates a file instead of being coupled to :ghc-flag:`-ddump-to-file`. The
+format is also different: it does not show code from the original file, instead
+it only shows generated code and has a comment for the splice location of the
+original file.
+
+Below is a sample output of :ghc-flag:`-ddump-splices` ::
+
+    TH_pragma.hs:(6,4)-(8,26): Splicing declarations
+      [d| foo :: Int -> Int
+          foo x = x + 1 |]
+    ======>
+      foo :: Int -> Int
+      foo x = (x + 1)
+
+Below is the output of the same sample using :ghc-flag:`-dth-dec-file` ::
+
+    -- TH_pragma.hs:(6,4)-(8,26): Splicing declarations
+    foo :: Int -> Int
+    foo x = (x + 1)
+
+.. _th-example:
+
+A Template Haskell Worked Example
+---------------------------------
+
+To help you get over the confidence barrier, try out this skeletal
+worked example. First cut and paste the two modules below into :file:`Main.hs`
+and :file:`Printf.hs`:
+
+::
+
+
+    {- Main.hs -}
+    module Main where
+
+    -- Import our template "pr"
+    import Printf ( pr )
+
+    -- The splice operator $ takes the Haskell source code
+    -- generated at compile time by "pr" and splices it into
+    -- the argument of "putStrLn".
+    main = putStrLn ( $(pr "Hello") )
+
+
+    {- Printf.hs -}
+    module Printf where
+
+    -- Skeletal printf from the paper.
+    -- It needs to be in a separate module to the one where
+    -- you intend to use it.
+
+    -- Import some Template Haskell syntax
+    import Language.Haskell.TH
+
+    -- Describe a format string
+    data Format = D | S | L String
+
+    -- Parse a format string.  This is left largely to you
+    -- as we are here interested in building our first ever
+    -- Template Haskell program and not in building printf.
+    parse :: String -> [Format]
+    parse s   = [ L s ]
+
+    -- Generate Haskell source code from a parsed representation
+    -- of the format string.  This code will be spliced into
+    -- the module which calls "pr", at compile time.
+    gen :: Quote m => [Format] -> m Exp
+    gen [D]   = [| \n -> show n |]
+    gen [S]   = [| \s -> s |]
+    gen [L s] = stringE s
+
+    -- Here we generate the Haskell code for the splice
+    -- from an input format string.
+    pr :: Quote m => String -> m Exp
+    pr s = gen (parse s)
+
+Now run the compiler,
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    $ ghc --make -XTemplateHaskell main.hs -o main
+
+Run :file:`main` and here is your output:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    $ ./main
+    Hello
+
+.. _th-profiling:
+
+Using Template Haskell with Profiling
+-------------------------------------
+
+.. index::
+   single: profiling; with Template Haskell
+
+Template Haskell relies on GHC's built-in bytecode compiler and
+interpreter to run the splice expressions. The bytecode interpreter runs
+the compiled expression on top of the same runtime on which GHC itself
+is running; this means that the compiled code referred to by the
+interpreted expression must be compatible with this runtime, and in
+particular this means that object code that is compiled for profiling
+*cannot* be loaded and used by a splice expression, because profiled
+object code is only compatible with the profiling version of the
+runtime.
+
+This causes difficulties if you have a multi-module program containing
+Template Haskell code and you need to compile it for profiling, because
+GHC cannot load the profiled object code and use it when executing the
+splices.
+
+Fortunately GHC provides two workarounds.
+
+The first option is to compile the program twice:
+
+1. Compile the program or library first the normal way, without
+   :ghc-flag:`-prof`.
+
+2. Then compile it again with :ghc-flag:`-prof`, and additionally use ``-osuf
+   p_o`` to name the object files differently (you can choose any suffix that
+   isn't the normal object suffix here). GHC will automatically load the object
+   files built in the first step when executing splice expressions. If you omit
+   the :ghc-flag:`-osuf ⟨suffix⟩` flag when building with :ghc-flag:`-prof` and
+   Template Haskell is used, GHC will emit an error message.
+
+   .. index::
+      single : -osuf; using with profiling
+
+The second option is to add the flag :ghc-flag:`-fexternal-interpreter` (see
+:ref:`external-interpreter`), which runs the interpreter in a separate
+process, wherein it can load and run the profiled code directly.
+There's no need to compile the code twice, just add
+:ghc-flag:`-fexternal-interpreter` and it should just work.  (this option is
+experimental in GHC 8.0.x, but it may become the default in future
+releases).
+
+.. _th-quasiquotation:
+
+Template Haskell Quasi-quotation
+--------------------------------
+
+.. extension:: QuasiQuotes
+    :shortdesc: Enable quasiquotation.
+
+    :since: 6.10.1
+
+    Enable Template Haskell Quasi-quotation syntax.
+
+Quasi-quotation allows patterns and expressions to be written using
+programmer-defined concrete syntax; the motivation behind the extension
+and several examples are documented in "`Why It's Nice to be Quoted:
+Quasiquoting for
+Haskell <http://www.cs.tufts.edu/comp/150FP/archive/geoff-mainland/quasiquoting.pdf>`__"
+(Proc Haskell Workshop 2007). The example below shows how to write a
+quasiquoter for a simple expression language.
+
+Here are the salient features
+
+-  A quasi-quote has the form ``[quoter| string |]``.
+
+   -  The ⟨quoter⟩ must be the name of an imported quoter, either
+      qualified or unqualified; it cannot be an arbitrary expression.
+
+   -  The ⟨quoter⟩ cannot be "``e``", "``t``", "``d``", or "``p``",
+      since those overlap with Template Haskell quotations.
+
+   -  There must be no spaces in the token ``[quoter|``.
+
+   -  The quoted ⟨string⟩ can be arbitrary, and may contain newlines.
+
+   -  The quoted ⟨string⟩ finishes at the first occurrence of the
+      two-character sequence ``"|]"``. Absolutely no escaping is
+      performed. If you want to embed that character sequence in the
+      string, you must invent your own escape convention (such as, say,
+      using the string ``"|~]"`` instead), and make your quoter function
+      interpret ``"|~]"`` as ``"|]"``. One way to implement this is to
+      compose your quoter with a pre-processing pass to perform your
+      escape conversion. See the discussion in :ghc-ticket:`5348` for details.
+
+-  A quasiquote may appear in place of
+
+   -  An expression
+
+   -  A pattern
+
+   -  A type
+
+   -  A top-level declaration
+
+   (Only the first two are described in the paper.)
+
+-  A quoter is a value of type
+   ``Language.Haskell.TH.Quote.QuasiQuoter``, which is defined thus: ::
+
+       data QuasiQuoter = QuasiQuoter { quoteExp  :: String -> Q Exp,
+                                        quotePat  :: String -> Q Pat,
+                                        quoteType :: String -> Q Type,
+                                        quoteDec  :: String -> Q [Dec] }
+
+   That is, a quoter is a tuple of four parsers, one for each of the
+   contexts in which a quasi-quote can occur.
+
+-  A quasi-quote is expanded by applying the appropriate parser to the
+   string enclosed by the Oxford brackets. The context of the
+   quasi-quote (expression, pattern, type, declaration) determines which
+   of the parsers is called.
+
+-  Unlike normal declaration splices of the form ``$(...)``, declaration
+   quasi-quotes do not cause a declaration group break. See
+   :ref:`th-syntax` for more information.
+
+.. _quasi-quotes-list-comprehension-ambiguity:
+
+.. warning::
+
+    .. index::
+        single: quasi-quotes; ambiguity with list comprehensions
+        single: list comprehensions; ambiguity with quasi-quotes
+
+    :extension:`QuasiQuotes` introduces an unfortunate ambiguity with list
+    comprehension syntax. Consider the following, ::
+
+        let x = [v| v <- [0..10]]
+
+    Without :extension:`QuasiQuotes` this is parsed as a list comprehension.
+    With :extension:`QuasiQuotes` this is parsed as a quasi-quote; however,
+    this parse will fail due to the lack of a closing ``|]``. See
+    :ghc-ticket:`11679`.
+
+The example below shows quasi-quotation in action. The quoter ``expr``
+is bound to a value of type ``QuasiQuoter`` defined in module ``Expr``.
+The example makes use of an antiquoted variable ``n``, indicated by the
+syntax ``'int:n`` (this syntax for anti-quotation was defined by the
+parser's author, *not* by GHC). This binds ``n`` to the integer value
+argument of the constructor ``IntExpr`` when pattern matching. Please
+see the referenced paper for further details regarding anti-quotation as
+well as the description of a technique that uses SYB to leverage a
+single parser of type ``String -> a`` to generate both an expression
+parser that returns a value of type ``Q Exp`` and a pattern parser that
+returns a value of type ``Q Pat``.
+
+Quasiquoters must obey the same stage restrictions as Template Haskell,
+e.g., in the example, ``expr`` cannot be defined in ``Main.hs`` where it
+is used, but must be imported.
+
+::
+
+    {- ------------- file Main.hs --------------- -}
+    module Main where
+
+    import Expr
+
+    main :: IO ()
+    main = do { print $ eval [expr|1 + 2|]
+              ; case IntExpr 1 of
+                  { [expr|'int:n|] -> print n
+                  ;  _              -> return ()
+                  }
+              }
+
+
+    {- ------------- file Expr.hs --------------- -}
+    module Expr where
+
+    import qualified Language.Haskell.TH as TH
+    import Language.Haskell.TH.Quote
+
+    data Expr  =  IntExpr Integer
+               |  AntiIntExpr String
+               |  BinopExpr BinOp Expr Expr
+               |  AntiExpr String
+        deriving(Show, Typeable, Data)
+
+    data BinOp  =  AddOp
+                |  SubOp
+                |  MulOp
+                |  DivOp
+        deriving(Show, Typeable, Data)
+
+    eval :: Expr -> Integer
+    eval (IntExpr n)        = n
+    eval (BinopExpr op x y) = (opToFun op) (eval x) (eval y)
+      where
+        opToFun AddOp = (+)
+        opToFun SubOp = (-)
+        opToFun MulOp = (*)
+        opToFun DivOp = div
+
+    expr = QuasiQuoter { quoteExp = parseExprExp, quotePat =  parseExprPat }
+
+    -- Parse an Expr, returning its representation as
+    -- either a Q Exp or a Q Pat. See the referenced paper
+    -- for how to use SYB to do this by writing a single
+    -- parser of type String -> Expr instead of two
+    -- separate parsers.
+
+    parseExprExp :: String -> Q Exp
+    parseExprExp ...
+
+    parseExprPat :: String -> Q Pat
+    parseExprPat ...
+
+Now run the compiler:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    $ ghc --make -XQuasiQuotes Main.hs -o main
+
+Run "main" and here is your output:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    $ ./main
+    3
+    1
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/traditional_record_syntax.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/traditional_record_syntax.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e500ff8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/traditional_record_syntax.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+.. _traditional-record-syntax:
+
+Traditional record syntax
+-------------------------
+
+.. extension:: NoTraditionalRecordSyntax
+    :shortdesc: Disable support for traditional record syntax
+        (as supported by Haskell 98) ``C {f = x}``
+
+    :since: 7.4.1
+
+    Disallow use of record syntax.
+
+Traditional record syntax, such as ``C {f = x}``, is enabled by default.
+To disable it, you can use the :extension:`NoTraditionalRecordSyntax` extension.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/tuple_sections.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/tuple_sections.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..463b451
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/tuple_sections.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+.. _tuple-sections:
+
+Tuple sections
+--------------
+
+.. extension:: TupleSections
+    :shortdesc: Enable tuple sections.
+
+    :since: 6.12
+
+    Allow the use of tuple section syntax
+
+The :extension:`TupleSections` extension enables partially applied
+tuple constructors. For example, the following program ::
+
+      (, True)
+
+is considered to be an alternative notation for the more unwieldy
+alternative ::
+
+      \x -> (x, True)
+
+You can omit any combination of arguments to the tuple, as in the
+following ::
+
+      (, "I", , , "Love", , 1337)
+
+which translates to ::
+
+      \a b c d -> (a, "I", b, c, "Love", d, 1337)
+
+If you have `unboxed tuples <#unboxed-tuples>`__ enabled, tuple sections
+will also be available for them, like so ::
+
+      (# , True #)
+
+Because there is no unboxed unit tuple, the following expression ::
+
+      (# #)
+
+continues to stand for the unboxed singleton tuple data constructor.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/type_applications.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/type_applications.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e789c9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/type_applications.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,181 @@
+.. _visible-type-application:
+
+Visible type application
+========================
+
+.. extension:: TypeApplications
+    :shortdesc: Enable type application syntax in terms and types.
+
+    :since: 8.0.1
+
+    Allow the use of type application syntax.
+
+The :extension:`TypeApplications` extension allows you to use
+*visible type application* in expressions. Here is an
+example: ``show (read @Int "5")``. The ``@Int``
+is the visible type application; it specifies the value of the type variable
+in ``read``'s type.
+
+A visible type application is preceded with an ``@``
+sign. (To disambiguate the syntax, the ``@`` must be
+preceded with a non-identifier letter, usually a space. For example,
+``read@Int 5`` would not parse.) It can be used whenever
+the full polymorphic type of the function is known. If the function
+is an identifier (the common case), its type is considered known only when
+the identifier has been given a type signature. If the identifier does
+not have a type signature, visible type application cannot be used.
+
+GHC also permits visible kind application, where users can declare the kind
+arguments to be instantiated in kind-polymorphic cases. Its usage parallels
+visible type application in the term level, as specified above.
+
+.. _inferred-vs-specified:
+
+Inferred vs. specified type variables
+-------------------------------------
+
+.. index::
+   single: type variable; inferred vs. specified
+
+GHC tracks a distinction between what we call *inferred* and *specified*
+type variables. Only specified type variables are available for instantiation
+with visible type application. An example illustrates this well::
+
+  f :: (Eq b, Eq a) => a -> b -> Bool
+  f x y = (x == x) && (y == y)
+
+  g x y = (x == x) && (y == y)
+
+The functions ``f`` and ``g`` have the same body, but only ``f`` is given
+a type signature. When GHC is figuring out how to process a visible type application,
+it must know what variable to instantiate. It thus must be able to provide
+an ordering to the type variables in a function's type.
+
+If the user has supplied a type signature, as in ``f``, then this is easy:
+we just take the ordering from the type signature, going left to right and
+using the first occurrence of a variable to choose its position within the
+ordering. Thus, the variables in ``f`` will be ``b``, then ``a``.
+
+In contrast, there is no reliable way to do this for ``g``; we will not know
+whether ``Eq a`` or ``Eq b`` will be listed first in the constraint in ``g``\'s
+type. In order to have visible type application be robust between releases of
+GHC, we thus forbid its use with ``g``.
+
+We say that the type variables in ``f`` are *specified*, while those in
+``g`` are *inferred*. The general rule is this: if the user has written
+a type variable in the source program, it is *specified*; if not, it is
+*inferred*.
+
+This rule applies in datatype declarations, too. For example, if we have
+``data Proxy a = Proxy`` (and :extension:`PolyKinds` is enabled), then
+``a`` will be assigned kind ``k``, where ``k`` is a fresh kind variable.
+Because ``k`` was not written by the user, it will be unavailable for
+type application in the type of the constructor ``Proxy``; only the ``a``
+will be available.
+
+When :ghc-flag:`-fprint-explicit-foralls` is enabled, inferred variables
+are printed in braces. Thus, the type of the data constructor ``Proxy``
+from the previous example would be ``forall {k} (a :: k). Proxy a``.
+We can observe this behavior in a GHCi session: ::
+
+  > :set -XTypeApplications -fprint-explicit-foralls
+  > let myLength1 :: Foldable f => f a -> Int; myLength1 = length
+  > :type +v myLength1
+  myLength1 :: forall (f :: * -> *) a. Foldable f => f a -> Int
+  > let myLength2 = length
+  > :type +v myLength2
+  myLength2 :: forall {a} {t :: * -> *}. Foldable t => t a -> Int
+  > :type +v myLength2 @[]
+
+  <interactive>:1:1: error:
+      • Cannot apply expression of type ‘t0 a0 -> Int’
+        to a visible type argument ‘[]’
+      • In the expression: myLength2 @[]
+
+Notice that since ``myLength1`` was defined with an explicit type signature,
+:ghci-cmd:`:type +v` reports that all of its type variables are available
+for type application. On the other hand, ``myLength2`` was not given a type
+signature. As a result, all of its type variables are surrounded with braces,
+and trying to use visible type application with ``myLength2`` fails.
+
+Also note the use of :ghci-cmd:`:type +v` in the GHCi session above instead
+of :ghci-cmd:`:type`. This is because :ghci-cmd:`:type` gives you the type
+that would be inferred for a variable assigned to the expression provided
+(that is, the type of ``x`` in ``let x = <expr>``). As we saw above with
+``myLength2``, this type will have no variables available to visible type
+application. On the other hand, :ghci-cmd:`:type +v` gives you the actual
+type of the expression provided. To illustrate this: ::
+
+  > :type myLength1
+  myLength1 :: forall {a} {f :: * -> *}. Foldable f => f a -> Int
+  > :type myLength2
+  myLength2 :: forall {a} {t :: * -> *}. Foldable t => t a -> Int
+
+Using :ghci-cmd:`:type` might lead one to conclude that none of the type
+variables in ``myLength1``'s type signature are available for type
+application. This isn't true, however! Be sure to use :ghci-cmd:`:type +v`
+if you want the most accurate information with respect to visible type
+application properties.
+
+.. index::
+   single: ScopedSort
+
+.. _ScopedSort:
+
+Ordering of specified variables
+-------------------------------
+
+In the simple case of the previous section, we can say that specified variables
+appear in left-to-right order. However, not all cases are so simple. Here are
+the rules in the subtler cases:
+
+- If an identifier's type has a ``forall``, then the order of type variables
+  as written in the ``forall`` is retained.
+
+- If any of the variables depend on other variables (that is, if some
+  of the variables are *kind* variables), the variables are reordered
+  so that kind variables come before type variables, preserving the
+  left-to-right order as much as possible. That is, GHC performs a
+  stable topological sort on the variables. Example::
+
+    h :: Proxy (a :: (j, k)) -> Proxy (b :: Proxy a) -> ()
+      -- as if h :: forall j k a b. ...
+
+  In this example, ``a`` depends on ``j`` and ``k``, and ``b`` depends on ``a``.
+  Even though ``a`` appears lexically before ``j`` and ``k``, ``j`` and ``k``
+  are quantified first, because ``a`` depends on ``j`` and ``k``. Note further
+  that ``j`` and ``k`` are not reordered with respect to each other, even
+  though doing so would not violate dependency conditions.
+
+  A "stable topological sort" here, we mean that we perform this algorithm
+  (which we call *ScopedSort*):
+
+  * Work left-to-right through the input list of type variables, with a cursor.
+  * If variable ``v`` at the cursor is depended on by any earlier variable ``w``,
+    move ``v`` immediately before the leftmost such ``w``.
+
+- Class methods' type arguments include the class type
+  variables, followed by any variables an individual method is polymorphic
+  in. So, ``class Monad m where return :: a -> m a`` means
+  that ``return``'s type arguments are ``m, a``.
+
+- With the :extension:`RankNTypes` extension
+  (:ref:`universal-quantification`), it is possible to declare
+  type arguments somewhere other than the beginning of a type. For example,
+  we can have ``pair :: forall a. a -> forall b. b -> (a, b)``
+  and then say ``pair @Bool True @Char`` which would have
+  type ``Char -> (Bool, Char)``.
+
+- Partial type signatures (:ref:`partial-type-signatures`)
+  work nicely with visible type
+  application. If you want to specify only the second type argument to
+  ``wurble``, then you can say ``wurble @_ @Int``.
+  The first argument is a wildcard, just like in a partial type signature.
+  However, if used in a visible type application/visible kind application,
+  it is *not* necessary to specify :extension:`PartialTypeSignatures` and your
+  code will not generate a warning informing you of the omitted type.
+
+The section in this manual on kind polymorphism describes how variables
+in type and class declarations are ordered (:ref:`inferring-variable-order`).
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/type_errors.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/type_errors.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2f9ec65
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/type_errors.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,63 @@
+.. _custom-errors:
+
+Custom compile-time errors
+==========================
+
+When designing embedded domain specific languages in Haskell, it is useful to
+have something like ``error`` at the type level. In this way, the EDSL designer
+may show a type error that is specific to the DSL, rather than the standard GHC
+type error.
+
+For example, consider a type class that is not intended to be used with
+functions, but the user accidentally used it at a function type, perhaps
+because they missed an argument to some function. Then, instead of getting the
+standard GHC message about a missing instance, it would be nicer to emit a more
+friendly message specific to the EDSL. Similarly, the reduction of a type-level
+function may get stuck due to an error, at which point it would be nice to
+report an EDSL specific error, rather than a generic error about an ambiguous
+type.
+
+To solve this, GHC provides a single type-level function, ::
+
+    type family TypeError (msg :: ErrorMessage) :: k
+
+along with a small type-level language (via :extension:`DataKinds`)
+for constructing pretty-printed error messages, ::
+
+    -- ErrorMessage is intended to be used as a kind
+    data ErrorMessage =
+          Text Symbol                        -- Show this text as is
+        | forall t. ShowType t               -- Pretty print a type
+        | ErrorMessage :<>: ErrorMessage     -- Put two chunks of error message next to each other
+        | ErrorMessage :$$: ErrorMessage     -- Put two chunks of error message above each other
+
+in the :base-ref:`GHC.TypeLits.` module.
+
+For instance, we might use this interface to provide a more useful error
+message for applications of ``show`` on unsaturated functions like this, ::
+
+    {-# LANGUAGE DataKinds #-}
+    {-# LANGUAGE TypeOperators #-}
+    {-# LANGUAGE UndecidableInstances #-}
+
+    import GHC.TypeLits
+
+    instance TypeError (Text "Cannot 'Show' functions." :$$:
+                        Text "Perhaps there is a missing argument?")
+             => Show (a -> b) where
+       showsPrec = error "unreachable"
+
+    main = print negate
+
+Which will produce the following compile-time error,
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    Test.hs:12:8: error:
+        • Cannot 'Show' functions.
+          Perhaps there is a missing argument?
+        • In the expression: print negate
+          In an equation for ‘main’: main = print negate
+
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/type_families.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/type_families.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3ae0da7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/type_families.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,1214 @@
+.. _type-families:
+
+Type families
+=============
+
+.. extension:: TypeFamilies
+    :shortdesc: Enable type families.
+        Implies :extension:`ExplicitNamespaces`, :extension:`KindSignatures`,
+        and :extension:`MonoLocalBinds`.
+
+    :implies: :extension:`MonoLocalBinds`, :extension:`KindSignatures`,
+              :extension:`ExplicitNamespaces`
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Allow use and definition of indexed type and data families.
+
+Indexed type families form an extension to facilitate type-level
+programming. Type families are a generalisation of associated data types
+[AssocDataTypes2005]_ and associated type synonyms
+[AssocTypeSyn2005]_ Type families themselves are described in
+Schrijvers 2008 [TypeFamilies2008]_. Type families essentially provide
+type-indexed data types and named functions on types, which are useful for
+generic programming and highly parameterised library interfaces as well as
+interfaces with enhanced static information, much like dependent types. They
+might also be regarded as an alternative to functional dependencies, but provide
+a more functional style of type-level programming than the relational style of
+functional dependencies.
+
+Indexed type families, or type families for short, are type constructors
+that represent sets of types. Set members are denoted by supplying the
+type family constructor with type parameters, which are called type
+indices. The difference between vanilla parametrised type constructors
+and family constructors is much like between parametrically polymorphic
+functions and (ad-hoc polymorphic) methods of type classes. Parametric
+polymorphic functions behave the same at all type instances, whereas
+class methods can change their behaviour in dependence on the class type
+parameters. Similarly, vanilla type constructors imply the same data
+representation for all type instances, but family constructors can have
+varying representation types for varying type indices.
+
+Indexed type families come in three flavours: data families, open type
+synonym families, and closed type synonym families. They are the indexed
+family variants of algebraic data types and type synonyms, respectively.
+The instances of data families can be data types and newtypes.
+
+Type families are enabled by the language extension :extension:`TypeFamilies`. Additional
+information on the use of type families in GHC is available on `the
+Haskell wiki page on type
+families <http://www.haskell.org/haskellwiki/GHC/Indexed_types>`__.
+
+.. [AssocDataTypes2005]
+    “`Associated Types with Class
+    <http://www.cse.unsw.edu.au/~chak/papers/CKPM05.html>`__\ ”, M.
+    Chakravarty, G. Keller, S. Peyton Jones,
+    and S. Marlow. In Proceedings of “The 32nd Annual
+    ACM SIGPLAN-SIGACT Symposium on Principles of
+    Programming Languages (POPL'05)”, pages 1-13, ACM
+    Press, 2005.
+
+.. [AssocTypeSyn2005]
+    “`Type Associated Type
+    Synonyms <http://www.cse.unsw.edu.au/~chak/papers/CKP05.html>`__\ ”. M.
+    Chakravarty, G. Keller, and S. Peyton Jones. In Proceedings of “The
+    Tenth ACM SIGPLAN International Conference on Functional Programming”,
+    ACM Press, pages 241-253, 2005.
+
+.. [TypeFamilies2008]
+    “\ `Type Checking with Open Type
+    Functions <http://www.cse.unsw.edu.au/~chak/papers/SPCS08.html>`__\ ”,
+    T. Schrijvers, S. Peyton-Jones, M. Chakravarty, and M. Sulzmann, in
+    Proceedings of “ICFP 2008: The 13th ACM SIGPLAN International Conference
+    on Functional Programming”, ACM Press, pages 51-62, 2008.
+
+
+.. _data-families:
+
+Data families
+-------------
+
+Data families appear in two flavours: (1) they can be defined on the
+toplevel or (2) they can appear inside type classes (in which case they
+are known as associated types). The former is the more general variant,
+as it lacks the requirement for the type-indexes to coincide with the
+class parameters. However, the latter can lead to more clearly
+structured code and compiler warnings if some type instances were -
+possibly accidentally - omitted. In the following, we always discuss the
+general toplevel form first and then cover the additional constraints
+placed on associated types.
+
+.. _data-family-declarations:
+
+Data family declarations
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Indexed data families are introduced by a signature, such as ::
+
+    data family GMap k :: Type -> Type
+
+The special ``family`` distinguishes family from standard data
+declarations. The result kind annotation is optional and, as usual,
+defaults to ``Type`` if omitted. An example is ::
+
+    data family Array e
+
+Named arguments can also be given explicit kind signatures if needed.
+Just as with :ref:`GADT declarations <gadt>` named arguments are
+entirely optional, so that we can declare ``Array`` alternatively with ::
+
+    data family Array :: Type -> Type
+
+Unlike with ordinary data definitions, the result kind of a data family
+does not need to be ``Type``. It can alternatively be:
+
+* Of the form ``TYPE r`` for some ``r`` (see :ref:`runtime-rep`).
+  For example: ::
+
+    data family DF1 :: TYPE IntRep
+    data family DF2 (r :: RuntimeRep)  :: TYPE r
+    data family DF3 :: Type -> TYPE WordRep
+
+* A bare kind variable (with :extension:`PolyKinds` enabled).
+  For example: ::
+
+    data family DF4 :: k
+    data family DF5 (a :: k) :: k
+    data family DF6 :: (k -> Type) -> k
+
+Data instances' kinds must end in ``Type``, however. This restriction is
+slightly relaxed when the :extension:`UnliftedNewtypes` extension is enabled,
+as it permits a ``newtype instance``'s kind to end in ``TYPE r`` for some
+``r``.
+
+.. _data-instance-declarations:
+
+Data instance declarations
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Instance declarations of data and newtype families are very similar to
+standard data and newtype declarations. The only two differences are
+that the keyword ``data`` or ``newtype`` is followed by ``instance`` and
+that some or all of the type arguments can be non-variable types, but
+may not contain forall types or type synonym families. However, data
+families are generally allowed in type parameters, and type synonyms are
+allowed as long as they are fully applied and expand to a type that is
+itself admissible - exactly as this is required for occurrences of type
+synonyms in class instance parameters. For example, the ``Either``
+instance for ``GMap`` is ::
+
+    data instance GMap (Either a b) v = GMapEither (GMap a v) (GMap b v)
+
+In this example, the declaration has only one variant. In general, it
+can be any number.
+
+When :extension:`ExplicitForAll` is enabled, type and kind variables used on
+the left hand side can be explicitly bound. For example: ::
+
+    data instance forall a (b :: Proxy a). F (Proxy b) = FProxy Bool
+
+When an explicit ``forall`` is present, *all* type and kind variables mentioned
+which are not already in scope must be bound by the ``forall``:
+
+    data instance forall   (a :: k). F a = FOtherwise  -- rejected: k not in scope
+    data instance forall k (a :: k). F a = FOtherwise  -- accepted
+
+When the flag :ghc-flag:`-Wunused-type-patterns` is enabled, type
+variables that are mentioned in the patterns on the left hand side, but not
+used on the right hand side are reported. Variables that occur multiple times
+on the left hand side are also considered used. To suppress the warnings,
+unused variables should be either replaced or prefixed with underscores. Type
+variables starting with an underscore (``_x``) are otherwise treated as
+ordinary type variables.
+
+This resembles the wildcards that can be used in
+:ref:`partial-type-signatures`. However, there are some differences.
+No error messages reporting the inferred types are generated, nor does
+the extension :extension:`PartialTypeSignatures` have any effect.
+
+A type or kind variable explicitly bound using :extension:`ExplicitForAll` but
+not used on the left hand side will generate an error, not a warning.
+
+Data and newtype instance declarations are only permitted when an
+appropriate family declaration is in scope - just as a class instance
+declaration requires the class declaration to be visible. Moreover, each
+instance declaration has to conform to the kind determined by its family
+declaration. This implies that the number of parameters of an instance
+declaration matches the arity determined by the kind of the family.
+
+A data family instance declaration can use the full expressiveness of
+ordinary ``data`` or ``newtype`` declarations:
+
+-  Although, a data family is *introduced* with the keyword "``data``",
+   a data family *instance* can use either ``data`` or ``newtype``. For
+   example: ::
+
+       data family T a
+       data    instance T Int  = T1 Int | T2 Bool
+       newtype instance T Char = TC Bool
+
+-  A ``data instance`` can use GADT syntax for the data constructors,
+   and indeed can define a GADT. For example: ::
+
+       data family G a b
+       data instance G [a] b where
+          G1 :: c -> G [Int] b
+          G2 :: G [a] Bool
+
+-  You can use a ``deriving`` clause on a ``data instance`` or
+   ``newtype instance`` declaration.
+
+Even if data families are defined as toplevel declarations, functions
+that perform different computations for different family instances may
+still need to be defined as methods of type classes. In particular, the
+following is not possible: ::
+
+    data family T a
+    data instance T Int  = A
+    data instance T Char = B
+    foo :: T a -> Int
+    foo A = 1
+    foo B = 2
+
+Instead, you would have to write ``foo`` as a class operation, thus: ::
+
+    class Foo a where
+      foo :: T a -> Int
+    instance Foo Int where
+      foo A = 1
+    instance Foo Char where
+      foo B = 2
+
+Given the functionality provided by GADTs (Generalised Algebraic Data
+Types), it might seem as if a definition, such as the above, should be
+feasible. However, type families - in contrast to GADTs - are
+*open;* i.e., new instances can always be added, possibly in other
+modules. Supporting pattern matching across different data instances
+would require a form of extensible case construct.
+
+.. _data-family-overlap:
+
+Overlap of data instances
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The instance declarations of a data family used in a single program may
+not overlap at all, independent of whether they are associated or not.
+In contrast to type class instances, this is not only a matter of
+consistency, but one of type safety.
+
+.. _synonym-families:
+
+Synonym families
+----------------
+
+Type families appear in three flavours: (1) they can be defined as open
+families on the toplevel, (2) they can be defined as closed families on
+the toplevel, or (3) they can appear inside type classes (in which case
+they are known as associated type synonyms). Toplevel families are more
+general, as they lack the requirement for the type-indexes to coincide
+with the class parameters. However, associated type synonyms can lead to
+more clearly structured code and compiler warnings if some type
+instances were - possibly accidentally - omitted. In the following, we
+always discuss the general toplevel forms first and then cover the
+additional constraints placed on associated types. Note that closed
+associated type synonyms do not exist.
+
+.. _type-family-declarations:
+
+Type family declarations
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Open indexed type families are introduced by a signature, such as ::
+
+    type family Elem c :: Type
+
+The special ``family`` distinguishes family from standard type
+declarations. The result kind annotation is optional and, as usual,
+defaults to ``Type`` if omitted. An example is ::
+
+    type family Elem c
+
+Parameters can also be given explicit kind signatures if needed. We call
+the number of parameters in a type family declaration, the family's
+arity, and all applications of a type family must be fully saturated
+with respect to that arity. This requirement is unlike ordinary type synonyms
+and it implies that the kind of a type family is not sufficient to
+determine a family's arity, and hence in general, also insufficient to
+determine whether a type family application is well formed. As an
+example, consider the following declaration: ::
+
+    type family F a b :: Type -> Type
+      -- F's arity is 2,
+      -- although its overall kind is Type -> Type -> Type -> Type
+
+Given this declaration the following are examples of well-formed and
+malformed types: ::
+
+    F Char [Int]       -- OK!  Kind: Type -> Type
+    F Char [Int] Bool  -- OK!  Kind: Type
+    F IO Bool          -- WRONG: kind mismatch in the first argument
+    F Bool             -- WRONG: unsaturated application
+
+The result kind annotation is optional and defaults to ``Type`` (like
+argument kinds) if omitted. Polykinded type families can be declared
+using a parameter in the kind annotation: ::
+
+    type family F a :: k
+
+In this case the kind parameter ``k`` is actually an implicit parameter
+of the type family.
+
+At definition site, the arity determines what inputs can be matched on: ::
+
+    data PT (a :: Type)
+
+    type family F1 :: k -> Type
+    type instance F1 = PT
+      -- OK, 'k' can be matched on.
+
+    type family F0 :: forall k. k -> Type
+    type instance F0 = PT
+      -- Error:
+      --   • Expected kind ‘forall k. k -> Type’,
+      --       but ‘PT’ has kind ‘Type -> Type’
+      --   • In the type ‘PT’
+      --     In the type instance declaration for ‘F0’
+
+Both ``F1`` and ``F0`` have kind ``forall k. k -> Type``, but their arity
+differs.
+
+At use sites, the arity determines if the definition can be used in a
+higher-rank scenario: ::
+
+    type HRK (f :: forall k. k -> Type) = (f Int, f Maybe, f True)
+
+    type H1 = HRK F0  -- OK
+    type H2 = HRK F1
+      -- Error:
+      --   • Expected kind ‘forall k. k -> Type’,
+      --       but ‘F1’ has kind ‘k0 -> Type’
+      --   • In the first argument of ‘HRK’, namely ‘F1’
+      --     In the type ‘HRK F1’
+      --     In the type declaration for ‘H2’
+
+This is a consequence of the requirement that all applications of a type family
+must be fully saturated with respect to their arity.
+
+.. _type-instance-declarations:
+
+Type instance declarations
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Instance declarations of type families are very similar to standard type
+synonym declarations. The only two differences are that the keyword
+``type`` is followed by ``instance`` and that some or all of the type
+arguments can be non-variable types, but may not contain forall types or
+type synonym families. However, data families are generally allowed, and
+type synonyms are allowed as long as they are fully applied and expand
+to a type that is admissible - these are the exact same requirements as
+for data instances. For example, the ``[e]`` instance for ``Elem`` is ::
+
+    type instance Elem [e] = e
+
+Type arguments can be replaced with underscores (``_``) if the names of
+the arguments don't matter. This is the same as writing type variables
+with unique names. Unused type arguments can be replaced or prefixed
+with underscores to avoid warnings when the
+:ghc-flag:`-Wunused-type-patterns` flag is enabled. The same rules apply
+as for :ref:`data-instance-declarations`.
+
+Also in the same way as :ref:`data-instance-declarations`, when
+:extension:`ExplicitForAll` is enabled, type and kind variables can be
+explicilty bound in a type instance declaration.
+
+Type family instance declarations are only legitimate when an
+appropriate family declaration is in scope - just like class instances
+require the class declaration to be visible. Moreover, each instance
+declaration has to conform to the kind determined by its family
+declaration, and the number of type parameters in an instance
+declaration must match the number of type parameters in the family
+declaration. Finally, the right-hand side of a type instance must be a
+monotype (i.e., it may not include foralls) and after the expansion of
+all saturated vanilla type synonyms, no synonyms, except family synonyms
+may remain.
+
+.. _closed-type-families:
+
+Closed type families
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+A type family can also be declared with a ``where`` clause, defining the
+full set of equations for that family. For example: ::
+
+    type family F a where
+      F Int  = Double
+      F Bool = Char
+      F a    = String
+
+A closed type family's equations are tried in order, from top to bottom,
+when simplifying a type family application. In this example, we declare
+an instance for ``F`` such that ``F Int`` simplifies to ``Double``,
+``F Bool`` simplifies to ``Char``, and for any other type ``a`` that is
+known not to be ``Int`` or ``Bool``, ``F a`` simplifies to ``String``.
+Note that GHC must be sure that ``a`` cannot unify with ``Int`` or
+``Bool`` in that last case; if a programmer specifies just ``F a`` in
+their code, GHC will not be able to simplify the type. After all, ``a``
+might later be instantiated with ``Int``.
+
+A closed type family's equations have the same restrictions and extensions as
+the equations for open type family instances. For instance, when
+:extension:`ExplicitForAll` is enabled, type or kind variables used on the
+left hand side of an equation can be explicitly bound, such as in: ::
+
+  type family R a where
+    forall t a. R (t a) = [a]
+    forall a.   R a     = a
+
+A closed type family may be declared with no equations. Such closed type
+families are opaque type-level definitions that will never reduce, are
+not necessarily injective (unlike empty data types), and cannot be given
+any instances. This is different from omitting the equations of a closed
+type family in a ``hs-boot`` file, which uses the syntax ``where ..``,
+as in that case there may or may not be equations given in the ``hs``
+file.
+
+.. _type-family-examples:
+
+Type family examples
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Here are some examples of admissible and illegal type instances: ::
+
+    type family F a :: Type
+    type instance F [Int]   = Int   -- OK!
+    type instance F String  = Char  -- OK!
+    type instance F (F a)   = a     -- WRONG: type parameter mentions a type family
+    type instance
+      F (forall a. (a, b))  = b     -- WRONG: a forall type appears in a type parameter
+    type instance
+      F Float = forall a.a          -- WRONG: right-hand side may not be a forall type
+    type family H a where          -- OK!
+      H Int  = Int
+      H Bool = Bool
+      H a    = String
+    type instance H Char = Char    -- WRONG: cannot have instances of closed family
+    type family K a where          -- OK!
+
+    type family G a b :: Type -> Type
+    type instance G Int            = (,)     -- WRONG: must be two type parameters
+    type instance G Int Char Float = Double  -- WRONG: must be two type parameters
+
+.. _type-family-overlap:
+
+Compatibility and apartness of type family equations
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+There must be some restrictions on the equations of type families, lest
+we define an ambiguous rewrite system. So, equations of open type
+families are restricted to be compatible. Two type patterns are
+compatible if
+
+1. all corresponding types and implicit kinds in the patterns are apart,
+   or
+
+2. the two patterns unify producing a substitution, and the right-hand
+   sides are equal under that substitution.
+
+Two types are considered apart if, for all possible substitutions, the
+types cannot reduce to a common reduct.
+
+The first clause of "compatible" is the more straightforward one. It
+says that the patterns of two distinct type family instances cannot
+overlap. For example, the following is disallowed: ::
+
+    type instance F Int = Bool
+    type instance F Int = Char
+
+The second clause is a little more interesting. It says that two
+overlapping type family instances are allowed if the right-hand sides
+coincide in the region of overlap. Some examples help here: ::
+
+    type instance F (a, Int) = [a]
+    type instance F (Int, b) = [b]   -- overlap permitted
+
+    type instance G (a, Int)  = [a]
+    type instance G (Char, a) = [a]  -- ILLEGAL overlap, as [Char] /= [Int]
+
+Note that this compatibility condition is independent of whether the
+type family is associated or not, and it is not only a matter of
+consistency, but one of type safety.
+
+For a polykinded type family, the kinds are checked for apartness just
+like types. For example, the following is accepted: ::
+
+    type family J a :: k
+    type instance J Int = Bool
+    type instance J Int = Maybe
+
+These instances are compatible because they differ in their implicit kind
+parameter; the first uses ``Type`` while the second uses ``Type -> Type``.
+
+The definition for "compatible" uses a notion of "apart", whose
+definition in turn relies on type family reduction. This condition of
+"apartness", as stated, is impossible to check, so we use this
+conservative approximation: two types are considered to be apart when
+the two types cannot be unified, even by a potentially infinite unifier.
+Allowing the unifier to be infinite disallows the following pair of
+instances: ::
+
+    type instance H x   x = Int
+    type instance H [x] x = Bool
+
+The type patterns in this pair equal if ``x`` is replaced by an infinite
+nesting of lists. Rejecting instances such as these is necessary for
+type soundness.
+
+Compatibility also affects closed type families. When simplifying an
+application of a closed type family, GHC will select an equation only
+when it is sure that no incompatible previous equation will ever apply.
+Here are some examples: ::
+
+    type family F a where
+      F Int = Bool
+      F a   = Char
+
+    type family G a where
+      G Int = Int
+      G a   = a
+
+In the definition for ``F``, the two equations are incompatible -- their
+patterns are not apart, and yet their right-hand sides do not coincide.
+Thus, before GHC selects the second equation, it must be sure that the
+first can never apply. So, the type ``F a`` does not simplify; only a
+type such as ``F Double`` will simplify to ``Char``. In ``G``, on the
+other hand, the two equations are compatible. Thus, GHC can ignore the
+first equation when looking at the second. So, ``G a`` will simplify to
+``a``.
+
+Incompatibilities between closed type family equations can be displayed
+in :ghci-cmd:`:info` when :ghc-flag:`-fprint-axiom-incomps` is enabled.
+
+However see :ref:`ghci-decls` for the overlap rules in GHCi.
+
+.. _type-family-decidability:
+
+Decidability of type synonym instances
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+.. extension:: UndecidableInstances
+    :noindex:
+
+    Relax restrictions on the decidability of type synonym family instances.
+
+In order to guarantee that type inference in the presence of type
+families decidable, we need to place a number of additional restrictions
+on the formation of type instance declarations (c.f., Definition 5
+(Relaxed Conditions) of “\ `Type Checking with Open Type
+Functions <http://www.cse.unsw.edu.au/~chak/papers/SPCS08.html>`__\ ”).
+Instance declarations have the general form ::
+
+    type instance F t1 .. tn = t
+
+where we require that for every type family application ``(G s1 .. sm)``
+in ``t``,
+
+1. ``s1 .. sm`` do not contain any type family constructors,
+
+2. the total number of symbols (data type constructors and type
+   variables) in ``s1 .. sm`` is strictly smaller than in ``t1 .. tn``,
+   and
+
+3. for every type variable ``a``, ``a`` occurs in ``s1 .. sm`` at most
+   as often as in ``t1 .. tn``.
+
+These restrictions are easily verified and ensure termination of type
+inference. However, they are not sufficient to guarantee completeness of
+type inference in the presence of, so called, ''loopy equalities'', such
+as ``a ~ [F a]``, where a recursive occurrence of a type variable is
+underneath a family application and data constructor application - see
+the above mentioned paper for details.
+
+If the option :extension:`UndecidableInstances` is passed to the compiler, the
+above restrictions are not enforced and it is on the programmer to ensure
+termination of the normalisation of type families during type inference.
+
+.. _type-wildcards-lhs:
+
+Wildcards on the LHS of data and type family instances
+------------------------------------------------------
+
+When the name of a type argument of a data or type instance
+declaration doesn't matter, it can be replaced with an underscore
+(``_``). This is the same as writing a type variable with a unique name. ::
+
+    data family F a b :: Type
+    data instance F Int _ = Int
+    -- Equivalent to  data instance F Int b = Int
+
+    type family T a :: Type
+    type instance T (a,_) = a
+    -- Equivalent to  type instance T (a,b) = a
+
+This use of underscore for wildcard in a type pattern is exactly like
+pattern matching in the term language, but is rather different to the
+use of a underscore in a partial type signature (see :ref:`type-wildcards`).
+
+A type variable beginning with an underscore is not treated specially in a
+type or data instance declaration.  For example: ::
+
+   data instance F Bool _a = _a -> Int
+   -- Equivalent to  data instance F Bool a = a -> Int
+
+Contrast this with the special treatment of named wildcards in
+type signatures (:ref:`named-wildcards`).
+
+
+.. _assoc-decl:
+
+Associated data and type families
+---------------------------------
+
+A data or type synonym family can be declared as part of a type class,
+thus: ::
+
+    class GMapKey k where
+      data GMap k :: Type -> Type
+      ...
+
+    class Collects ce where
+      type Elem ce :: Type
+      ...
+
+When doing so, we (optionally) may drop the "``family``" keyword.
+
+The type parameters must all be type variables, of course, and some (but
+not necessarily all) of then can be the class parameters. Each class
+parameter may only be used at most once per associated type, but some
+may be omitted and they may be in an order other than in the class head.
+Hence, the following contrived example is admissible: ::
+
+      class C a b c where
+        type T c a x :: Type
+
+Here ``c`` and ``a`` are class parameters, but the type is also indexed
+on a third parameter ``x``.
+
+.. _assoc-inst:
+
+Associated instances
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+When an associated data or type synonym family instance is declared
+within a type class instance, we (optionally) may drop the ``instance``
+keyword in the family instance: ::
+
+    instance (GMapKey a, GMapKey b) => GMapKey (Either a b) where
+      data GMap (Either a b) v = GMapEither (GMap a v) (GMap b v)
+      ...
+
+    instance Eq (Elem [e]) => Collects [e] where
+      type Elem [e] = e
+      ...
+
+The data or type family instance for an associated type must follow
+the rule that the type indexes corresponding to class parameters must have
+precisely the same as type given in the instance head. For example: ::
+
+    class Collects ce where
+      type Elem ce :: Type
+
+    instance Eq (Elem [e]) => Collects [e] where
+      -- Choose one of the following alternatives:
+      type Elem [e] = e       -- OK
+      type Elem [x] = x       -- BAD; '[x]' is different to '[e]' from head
+      type Elem x   = x       -- BAD; 'x' is different to '[e]'
+      type Elem [Maybe x] = x -- BAD: '[Maybe x]' is different to '[e]'
+
+Note the following points:
+
+-  An instance for an associated family can only appear as part of an
+   instance declarations of the class in which the family was declared,
+   just as with the equations of the methods of a class.
+
+-  The type variables on the right hand side of the type family equation
+   must, as usual, be explicitly bound by the left hand side. This restriction
+   is relaxed for *kind* variables, however, as the right hand side is allowed
+   to mention kind variables that are implicitly bound. For example, these are
+   legitimate: ::
+
+    data family Nat :: k -> k -> Type
+    -- k is implicitly bound by an invisible kind pattern
+    newtype instance Nat :: (k -> Type) -> (k -> Type) -> Type where
+      Nat :: (forall xx. f xx -> g xx) -> Nat f g
+
+    class Funct f where
+      type Codomain f :: Type
+    instance Funct ('KProxy :: KProxy o) where
+      -- o is implicitly bound by the kind signature
+      -- of the LHS type pattern ('KProxy)
+      type Codomain 'KProxy = NatTr (Proxy :: o -> Type)
+
+-  The instance for an associated type can be omitted in class
+   instances. In that case, unless there is a default instance (see
+   :ref:`assoc-decl-defs`), the corresponding instance type is not
+   inhabited; i.e., only diverging expressions, such as ``undefined``,
+   can assume the type.
+
+-  Although it is unusual, there (currently) can be *multiple* instances
+   for an associated family in a single instance declaration. For
+   example, this is legitimate: ::
+
+       instance GMapKey Flob where
+         data GMap Flob [v] = G1 v
+         data GMap Flob Int = G2 Int
+         ...
+
+   Here we give two data instance declarations, one in which the last
+   parameter is ``[v]``, and one for which it is ``Int``. Since you
+   cannot give any *subsequent* instances for ``(GMap Flob ...)``, this
+   facility is most useful when the free indexed parameter is of a kind
+   with a finite number of alternatives (unlike ``Type``).
+
+-  When :extension:`ExplicitForAll` is enabled, type and kind variables can be
+   explicitly bound in associated data or type family instances in the same way
+   (and with the same restrictions) as :ref:`data-instance-declarations` or
+   :ref:`type-instance-declarations`. For example, adapting the above, the
+   following is accepted: ::
+
+     instance Eq (Elem [e]) => Collects [e] where
+       type forall e. Elem [e] = e
+
+.. _assoc-decl-defs:
+
+Associated type synonym defaults
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+It is possible for the class defining the associated type to specify a
+default for associated type instances. So for example, this is OK: ::
+
+    class IsBoolMap v where
+      type Key v
+      type instance Key v = Int
+
+      lookupKey :: Key v -> v -> Maybe Bool
+
+    instance IsBoolMap [(Int, Bool)] where
+      lookupKey = lookup
+
+In an ``instance`` declaration for the class, if no explicit
+``type instance`` declaration is given for the associated type, the
+default declaration is used instead, just as with default class methods.
+
+Note the following points:
+
+-  The ``instance`` keyword is optional.
+
+-  There can be at most one default declaration for an associated type
+   synonym.
+
+-  A default declaration is not permitted for an associated *data* type.
+
+-  The default declaration must mention only type *variables* on the
+   left hand side, and type variables may not be repeated on the left-hand
+   side. The right hand side must mention only type
+   variables that are explicitly bound on the left hand side. This restriction
+   is relaxed for *kind* variables, however, as the right hand side is allowed
+   to mention kind variables that are implicitly bound on the left hand side.
+
+   Like with :ref:`assoc-inst`, it is possible to explicitly bind type and kind
+   variables in default declarations with a ``forall`` by using the
+   :extension:`ExplicitForAll` language extension.
+
+-  Unlike the associated type family declaration itself, the type variables of
+   the default instance are independent of those of the parent class.
+
+Here are some examples:
+
+::
+
+      class C (a :: Type) where
+        type F1 a :: Type
+        type instance F1 a = [a]     -- OK
+        type instance F1 a = a->a    -- BAD; only one default instance is allowed
+
+        type F2 b a                  -- OK; note the family has more type
+                                     --     variables than the class
+        type instance F2 c d = c->d  -- OK; you don't have to use 'a' in the type instance
+
+        type F3 a
+        type F3 [b] = b              -- BAD; only type variables allowed on the
+                                             LHS, and the argument to F3 is
+                                             instantiated to [b], which is not
+                                             a bare type variable
+
+        type F4 x y
+        type F4 x x = x              -- BAD; the type variable x is repeated on
+                                             the LHS
+
+        type F5 a
+        type F5 b = a                -- BAD; 'a' is not in scope  in the RHS
+
+        type F6 a :: [k]
+        type F6 a = ('[] :: [x])     -- OK; the kind variable x is implicitly
+                                            bound by an invisible kind pattern
+                                            on the LHS
+
+        type F7 a
+        type F7 a =
+          Proxy ('[] :: [x])         -- BAD; the kind variable x is not bound,
+                                             even by an invisible kind pattern
+
+        type F8 (x :: a) :: [a]
+        type F8 x = ('[] :: [a])     -- OK; the kind variable a is implicitly
+                                            bound by the kind signature of the
+                                            LHS type pattern
+
+        type F9 (a :: k)
+        type F9 a = Maybe a          -- BAD; the kind variable k is
+                                             instantiated to Type, which is not
+                                             a bare kind variable
+
+        type F10 (a :: j) (b :: k)
+        type F10 (a :: z) (b :: z)
+          = Proxy a                  -- BAD; the kind variable z is repeated,
+                                     -- as both j and k are instantiated to z
+
+        type F11 a b
+        type forall a b. F11 a b = a -- OK; LHS type variables can be
+                                        explicitly bound with 'forall'
+
+        type F12 (a :: k)
+        type F12 @k a = Proxy a      -- OK; visible kind application syntax is
+                                            permitted in default declarations
+
+.. _scoping-class-params:
+
+Scoping of class parameters
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The visibility of class parameters in the right-hand side of associated
+family instances depends *solely* on the parameters of the family. As an
+example, consider the simple class declaration ::
+
+    class C a b where
+      data T a
+
+Only one of the two class parameters is a parameter to the data family.
+Hence, the following instance declaration is invalid: ::
+
+    instance C [c] d where
+      data T [c] = MkT (c, d)    -- WRONG!!  'd' is not in scope
+
+Here, the right-hand side of the data instance mentions the type
+variable ``d`` that does not occur in its left-hand side. We cannot
+admit such data instances as they would compromise type safety.
+
+Bear in mind that it is also possible for the *right*-hand side of an
+associated family instance to contain *kind* parameters (by using the
+:extension:`PolyKinds` extension). For instance, this class and instance are
+perfectly admissible: ::
+
+    class C k where
+      type T :: k
+
+    instance C (Maybe a) where
+      type T = (Nothing :: Maybe a)
+
+Here, although the right-hand side ``(Nothing :: Maybe a)`` mentions a kind
+variable ``a`` which does not occur on the left-hand side, this is acceptable,
+because ``a`` is *implicitly* bound by ``T``'s kind pattern.
+
+A kind variable can also be bound implicitly in a LHS type pattern, as in this
+example: ::
+
+    class C a where
+      type T (x :: a) :: [a]
+
+    instance C (Maybe a) where
+      type T x = ('[] :: [Maybe a])
+
+In ``('[] :: [Maybe a])``, the kind variable ``a`` is implicitly bound by the
+kind signature of the LHS type pattern ``x``.
+
+Instance contexts and associated type and data instances
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Associated type and data instance declarations do not inherit any
+context specified on the enclosing instance. For type instance
+declarations, it is unclear what the context would mean. For data
+instance declarations, it is unlikely a user would want the context
+repeated for every data constructor. The only place where the context
+might likely be useful is in a ``deriving`` clause of an associated data
+instance. However, even here, the role of the outer instance context is
+murky. So, for clarity, we just stick to the rule above: the enclosing
+instance context is ignored. If you need to use a non-trivial context on
+a derived instance, use a :ghc-flag:`standalone deriving <-XStandaloneDeriving>`
+clause (at the top level).
+
+.. _data-family-import-export:
+
+Import and export
+-----------------
+
+The rules for export lists (Haskell Report `Section
+5.2 <http://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/modules.html#sect5.2>`__) needs
+adjustment for type families:
+
+-  The form ``T(..)``, where ``T`` is a data family, names the family
+   ``T`` and all the in-scope constructors (whether in scope qualified
+   or unqualified) that are data instances of ``T``.
+
+-  The form ``T(.., ci, .., fj, ..)``, where ``T`` is a data family,
+   names ``T`` and the specified constructors ``ci`` and fields ``fj``
+   as usual. The constructors and field names must belong to some data
+   instance of ``T``, but are not required to belong to the *same*
+   instance.
+
+-  The form ``C(..)``, where ``C`` is a class, names the class ``C`` and
+   all its methods *and associated types*.
+
+-  The form ``C(.., mi, .., type Tj, ..)``, where ``C`` is a class,
+   names the class ``C``, and the specified methods ``mi`` and
+   associated types ``Tj``. The types need a keyword "``type``" to
+   distinguish them from data constructors.
+
+-  Whenever there is no export list and a data instance is defined, the
+   corresponding data family type constructor is exported along with
+   the new data constructors, regardless of whether the data family
+   is defined locally or in another module.
+
+.. _data-family-impexp-examples:
+
+Examples
+~~~~~~~~
+
+Recall our running ``GMapKey`` class example:
+
+::
+
+    class GMapKey k where
+      data GMap k :: Type -> Type
+      insert :: GMap k v -> k -> v -> GMap k v
+      lookup :: GMap k v -> k -> Maybe v
+      empty  :: GMap k v
+
+    instance (GMapKey a, GMapKey b) => GMapKey (Either a b) where
+      data GMap (Either a b) v = GMapEither (GMap a v) (GMap b v)
+      ...method declarations...
+
+Here are some export lists and their meaning:
+
+-  ::
+
+     module GMap( GMapKey )
+
+   Exports just the class name.
+
+-  ::
+
+     module GMap( GMapKey(..) )
+
+   Exports the class, the associated type ``GMap`` and the member functions
+   ``empty``, ``lookup``, and ``insert``. The data constructors of ``GMap`` (in
+   this case ``GMapEither``) are not exported.
+
+-  ::
+
+     module GMap( GMapKey( type GMap, empty, lookup, insert ) )
+
+   Same as the previous item. Note the "``type``" keyword.
+
+-  ::
+
+     module GMap( GMapKey(..), GMap(..) )
+
+   Same as previous item, but also exports all the data constructors for
+   ``GMap``, namely
+   ``GMapEither``.
+
+-  ::
+
+     module GMap ( GMapKey( empty, lookup, insert), GMap(..) )
+
+   Same as previous item.
+
+-  ::
+
+     module GMap ( GMapKey, empty, lookup, insert, GMap(..) )
+
+   Same as previous item.
+
+Two things to watch out for:
+
+-  You cannot write ``GMapKey(type GMap(..))`` — i.e., sub-component
+   specifications cannot be nested. To specify ``GMap``\ 's data
+   constructors, you have to list it separately.
+
+-  Consider this example: ::
+
+         module X where
+           data family D
+
+         module Y where
+           import X
+           data instance D Int = D1 | D2
+
+   Module ``Y`` exports all the entities defined in ``Y``, namely the data
+   constructors ``D1`` and ``D2``, and *implicitly* the data family ``D``,
+   even though it's defined in ``X``.
+   This means you can write ``import Y( D(D1,D2) )`` *without*
+   giving an explicit export list like this: ::
+
+            module Y( D(..) ) where ...
+       or   module Y( module Y, D ) where ...
+
+.. _data-family-impexp-instances:
+
+Instances
+~~~~~~~~~
+
+Family instances are implicitly exported, just like class instances.
+However, this applies only to the heads of instances, not to the data
+constructors an instance defines.
+
+.. _ty-fams-in-instances:
+
+Type families and instance declarations
+---------------------------------------
+
+Type families require us to extend the rules for the form of instance
+heads, which are given in :ref:`flexible-instance-head`. Specifically:
+
+-  Data type families may appear in an instance head
+
+-  Type synonym families may not appear (at all) in an instance head
+
+The reason for the latter restriction is that there is no way to check
+for instance matching. Consider
+
+::
+
+       type family F a
+       type instance F Bool = Int
+
+       class C a
+
+       instance C Int
+       instance C (F a)
+
+Now a constraint ``(C (F Bool))`` would match both instances. The
+situation is especially bad because the type instance for ``F Bool``
+might be in another module, or even in a module that is not yet written.
+
+However, type class instances of instances of data families can be
+defined much like any other data type. For example, we can say
+
+::
+
+    data instance T Int = T1 Int | T2 Bool
+    instance Eq (T Int) where
+      (T1 i) == (T1 j) = i==j
+      (T2 i) == (T2 j) = i==j
+      _      == _      = False
+
+Note that class instances are always for particular *instances* of a
+data family and never for an entire family as a whole. This is for
+essentially the same reasons that we cannot define a toplevel function
+that performs pattern matching on the data constructors of *different*
+instances of a single type family. It would require a form of extensible
+case construct.
+
+Data instance declarations can also have ``deriving`` clauses. For
+example, we can write ::
+
+    data GMap () v = GMapUnit (Maybe v)
+                   deriving Show
+
+which implicitly defines an instance of the form ::
+
+    instance Show v => Show (GMap () v) where ...
+
+
+.. _injective-ty-fams:
+
+Injective type families
+-----------------------
+
+.. extension:: TypeFamilyDependencies
+    :shortdesc: Enable injective type families.
+        Implies :extension:`TypeFamilies`.
+
+    :implies: :extension:`TypeFamilies`
+    :since: 8.0.1
+
+    Allow functional dependency annotations on type families. This allows one to
+    define injective type families.
+
+Starting with GHC 8.0 type families can be annotated with injectivity
+information. This information is then used by GHC during type checking
+to resolve type ambiguities in situations where a type variable appears
+only under type family applications. Consider this contrived example: ::
+
+    type family Id a
+    type instance Id Int = Int
+    type instance Id Bool = Bool
+
+    id :: Id t -> Id t
+    id x = x
+
+Here the definition of ``id`` will be rejected because type variable ``t``
+appears only under type family applications and is thus ambiguous.  But this
+code will be accepted if we tell GHC that ``Id`` is injective, which means it
+will be possible to infer ``t`` at call sites from the type of the argument: ::
+
+    type family Id a = r | r -> a
+
+Injective type families are enabled with ``-XTypeFamilyDependencies`` language
+extension.  This extension implies ``-XTypeFamilies``.
+
+For full details on injective type families refer to Haskell Symposium
+2015 paper `Injective type families for
+Haskell <http://ics.p.lodz.pl/~stolarek/_media/pl:research:stolarek_peyton-jones_eisenberg_injectivity_extended.pdf>`__.
+
+.. _injective-ty-fams-syntax:
+
+Syntax of injectivity annotation
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The injectivity annotation is added after the type family head and consists of
+two parts:
+
+-  a type variable that names the result of a type family. Syntax:
+   ``= tyvar`` or ``= (tyvar :: kind)``. The type variable must be fresh.
+
+-  an injectivity annotation of the form ``| A -> B``, where ``A`` is the
+   result type variable (see previous bullet) and ``B`` is a list of
+   argument type and kind variables in which type family is injective.
+   It is possible to omit some variables if the type family is not injective
+   in them.
+
+Examples: ::
+
+    type family Id a = result | result -> a where
+    type family F a b c = d | d -> a c b
+    type family G (a :: k) b c = foo | foo -> k b where
+
+For open and closed type families it is OK to name the result but skip
+the injectivity annotation. This is not the case for associated type
+synonyms, where the named result without injectivity annotation will be
+interpreted as associated type synonym default.
+
+.. _injective-ty-fams-typecheck:
+
+Verifying the injectivity annotation against type family equations
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Once the user declares type family to be injective GHC must verify that
+this declaration is correct, i.e., that type family equations don't violate the
+injectivity annotation. A general idea is that if at least one equation
+(bullets (1), (2) and (3) below) or a pair of equations (bullets (4) and
+(5) below) violates the injectivity annotation then a type family is not
+injective in a way the user claims and an error is reported. In the bullets
+below *RHS* refers to the right-hand side of the type family equation
+being checked for injectivity. *LHS* refers to the arguments of that
+type family equation. Below are the rules followed when checking
+injectivity of a type family:
+
+1. If a RHS of a type family equation is a type family application GHC
+   reports that the type family is not injective.
+
+2. If a RHS of a type family equation is a bare type variable we require
+   that all LHS variables (including implicit kind variables) are also
+   bare. In other words, this has to be a sole equation of that type
+   family and it has to cover all possible patterns. If the patterns are
+   not covering GHC reports that the type family is not injective.
+
+3. If a LHS type variable that is declared as injective is not mentioned
+   on injective position
+   in the RHS GHC reports that the type family is not injective.
+   Injective position means either argument to a type constructor or
+   injective argument to a type family. Type inference can potentially
+   loop when looking under injective type families in the RHS, so this
+   requires :extension:`UndecidableInstances`; GHC suggests enabling
+   the flag when it is necessary.
+
+4. *Open type families* Open type families are typechecked
+   incrementally. This means that when a module is imported type family
+   instances contained in that module are checked against instances
+   present in already imported modules.
+
+   A pair of an open type family equations is checked by attempting to
+   unify their RHSs. If the RHSs don't unify this pair does not violate
+   injectivity annotation. If unification succeeds with a substitution
+   then LHSs of unified equations must be identical under that
+   substitution. If they are not identical then GHC reports that the
+   type family is not injective.
+
+5. In a *closed type family* all equations are ordered and in one place.
+   Equations are also checked pair-wise but this time an equation has to
+   be paired with all the preceding equations. Of course a
+   single-equation closed type family is trivially injective (unless
+   (1), (2) or (3) above holds).
+
+   When checking a pair of closed type family equations GHC tried to
+   unify their RHSs. If they don't unify this pair of equations does not
+   violate injectivity annotation. If the RHSs can be unified under some
+   substitution (possibly empty) then either the LHSs unify under the
+   same substitution or the LHS of the latter equation is subsumed by
+   earlier equations. If neither condition is met GHC reports that a
+   type family is not injective.
+
+Note that for the purpose of injectivity check in bullets (4) and (5)
+GHC uses a special variant of unification algorithm that treats type
+family applications as possibly unifying with anything.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/type_literals.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/type_literals.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..320c00b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/type_literals.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,122 @@
+.. _type-level-literals:
+
+Type-Level Literals
+===================
+
+GHC supports numeric and string literals at the type level, giving
+convenient access to a large number of predefined type-level constants.
+Numeric literals are of kind ``Nat``, while string literals are of kind
+``Symbol``. This feature is enabled by the :extension:`DataKinds` language
+extension.
+
+The kinds of the literals and all other low-level operations for this
+feature are defined in module ``GHC.TypeLits``. Note that the module
+defines some type-level operators that clash with their value-level
+counterparts (e.g. ``(+)``). Import and export declarations referring to
+these operators require an explicit namespace annotation (see
+:ref:`explicit-namespaces`).
+
+Here is an example of using type-level numeric literals to provide a
+safe interface to a low-level function: ::
+
+    import GHC.TypeLits
+    import Data.Word
+    import Foreign
+
+    newtype ArrPtr (n :: Nat) a = ArrPtr (Ptr a)
+
+    clearPage :: ArrPtr 4096 Word8 -> IO ()
+    clearPage (ArrPtr p) = ...
+
+Here is an example of using type-level string literals to simulate
+simple record operations: ::
+
+    data Label (l :: Symbol) = Get
+
+    class Has a l b | a l -> b where
+      from :: a -> Label l -> b
+
+    data Point = Point Int Int deriving Show
+
+    instance Has Point "x" Int where from (Point x _) _ = x
+    instance Has Point "y" Int where from (Point _ y) _ = y
+
+    example = from (Point 1 2) (Get :: Label "x")
+
+
+.. _typelit-runtime:
+
+Runtime Values for Type-Level Literals
+--------------------------------------
+
+Sometimes it is useful to access the value-level literal associated with
+a type-level literal. This is done with the functions ``natVal`` and
+``symbolVal``. For example: ::
+
+    GHC.TypeLits> natVal (Proxy :: Proxy 2)
+    2
+
+These functions are overloaded because they need to return a different
+result, depending on the type at which they are instantiated. ::
+
+    natVal :: KnownNat n => proxy n -> Integer
+
+    -- instance KnownNat 0
+    -- instance KnownNat 1
+    -- instance KnownNat 2
+    -- ...
+
+GHC discharges the constraint as soon as it knows what concrete
+type-level literal is being used in the program. Note that this works
+only for *literals* and not arbitrary type expressions. For example, a
+constraint of the form ``KnownNat (a + b)`` will *not* be simplified to
+``(KnownNat a, KnownNat b)``; instead, GHC will keep the constraint as
+is, until it can simplify ``a + b`` to a constant value.
+
+It is also possible to convert a run-time integer or string value to the
+corresponding type-level literal. Of course, the resulting type literal
+will be unknown at compile-time, so it is hidden in an existential type.
+The conversion may be performed using ``someNatVal`` for integers and
+``someSymbolVal`` for strings: ::
+
+    someNatVal :: Integer -> Maybe SomeNat
+    SomeNat    :: KnownNat n => Proxy n -> SomeNat
+
+The operations on strings are similar.
+
+.. _typelit-tyfuns:
+
+Computing With Type-Level Naturals
+----------------------------------
+
+GHC 7.8 can evaluate arithmetic expressions involving type-level natural
+numbers. Such expressions may be constructed using the type-families
+``(+), (*), (^)`` for addition, multiplication, and exponentiation.
+Numbers may be compared using ``(<=?)``, which returns a promoted
+boolean value, or ``(<=)``, which compares numbers as a constraint. For
+example:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    GHC.TypeLits> natVal (Proxy :: Proxy (2 + 3))
+    5
+
+At present, GHC is quite limited in its reasoning about arithmetic: it
+will only evaluate the arithmetic type functions and compare the
+results--- in the same way that it does for any other type function. In
+particular, it does not know more general facts about arithmetic, such
+as the commutativity and associativity of ``(+)``, for example.
+
+However, it is possible to perform a bit of "backwards" evaluation. For
+example, here is how we could get GHC to compute arbitrary logarithms at
+the type level:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+    lg :: Proxy base -> Proxy (base ^ pow) -> Proxy pow
+    lg _ _ = Proxy
+
+    GHC.TypeLits> natVal (lg (Proxy :: Proxy 2) (Proxy :: Proxy 8))
+    3
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/type_operators.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/type_operators.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ddedd76
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/type_operators.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+.. _type-operators:
+
+Type operators
+--------------
+
+.. extension:: TypeOperators
+    :shortdesc: Enable type operators.
+        Implies :extension:`ExplicitNamespaces`.
+
+    :implies: :extension:`ExplicitNamespaces`
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Allow the use and definition of types with operator names.
+
+In types, an operator symbol like ``(+)`` is normally treated as a type
+*variable*, just like ``a``. Thus in Haskell 98 you can say
+
+::
+
+    type T (+) = ((+), (+))
+    -- Just like: type T a = (a,a)
+
+    f :: T Int -> Int
+    f (x,y)= x
+
+As you can see, using operators in this way is not very useful, and
+Haskell 98 does not even allow you to write them infix.
+
+The language :extension:`TypeOperators` changes this behaviour:
+
+-  Operator symbols become type *constructors* rather than type
+   *variables*.
+
+-  Operator symbols in types can be written infix, both in definitions
+   and uses. For example: ::
+
+       data a + b = Plus a b
+       type Foo = Int + Bool
+
+-  There is now some potential ambiguity in import and export lists; for
+   example if you write ``import M( (+) )`` do you mean the *function*
+   ``(+)`` or the *type constructor* ``(+)``? The default is the former,
+   but with :extension:`ExplicitNamespaces` (which is implied by
+   :extension:`TypeOperators`) GHC allows you to specify the latter by
+   preceding it with the keyword ``type``, thus: ::
+
+       import M( type (+) )
+
+   See :ref:`explicit-namespaces`.
+
+-  The fixity of a type operator may be set using the usual fixity
+   declarations but, as in :ref:`infix-tycons`, the function and type
+   constructor share a single fixity.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/type_signatures.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/type_signatures.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..19eec9d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/type_signatures.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+.. _extensions-to-type-signatures:
+
+Type signatures
+===============
+
+.. toctree::
+    :maxdepth: 1
+
+    explicit_forall
+    flexible_contexts_signature
+    ambiguous_types
+    kind_signatures
+    scoped_type_variables
+    implicit_parameters
+    partial_type_signatures
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/typeclasses.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/typeclasses.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f3f63f6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/typeclasses.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+.. _type-class-extensions:
+
+Class and instances declarations
+================================
+
+This section documents GHC's type-class extensions.
+There's lots of background in the paper `Type classes: exploring the
+design
+space <http://research.microsoft.com/~simonpj/Papers/type-class-design-space/>`__
+(Simon Peyton Jones, Mark Jones, Erik Meijer).
+
+.. toctree::
+    :maxdepth: 1
+
+    multi_param_type_classes
+    flexible_contexts
+    undecidable_super_classes
+    constrained_class_methods
+    default_signatures
+    nullary_type_classes
+    functional_dependencies
+    instances
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/typed_holes.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/typed_holes.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5d2a58d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/typed_holes.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,569 @@
+.. _typed-holes:
+
+Typed Holes
+===========
+
+Typed holes are a feature of GHC that allows special placeholders
+written with a leading underscore (e.g., "``_``", "``_foo``",
+"``_bar``"), to be used as expressions. During compilation these holes
+will generate an error message that describes which type is expected at
+the hole's location, information about the origin of any free type
+variables, and a list of local bindings that might help fill the hole
+and bindings in scope that fit the type of the hole that might help fill
+the hole with actual code. Typed holes are always enabled in GHC.
+
+The goal of typed holes is to help with writing Haskell code rather than
+to change the type system. Typed holes can be used to obtain extra
+information from the type checker, which might otherwise be hard to get.
+Normally, using GHCi, users can inspect the (inferred) type signatures
+of all top-level bindings. However, this method is less convenient with
+terms that are not defined on top-level or inside complex expressions.
+Holes allow the user to check the type of the term they are about to
+write.
+
+For example, compiling the following module with GHC: ::
+
+    f :: a -> a
+    f x = _
+
+will fail with the following error: ::
+
+    hole.hs:2:7:
+        Found hole `_' with type: a
+        Where: `a' is a rigid type variable bound by
+                   the type signature for f :: a -> a at hole.hs:1:6
+        In the expression: _
+        In an equation for `f': f x = _
+        Relevant bindings include
+          x :: a (bound at hole.hs:2:3)
+          f :: a -> a (bound at hole.hs:2:1)
+        Valid hole fits include x :: a (bound at hole.hs:2:3)
+
+Here are some more details:
+
+-  A "``Found hole``" error usually terminates compilation, like any
+   other type error. After all, you have omitted some code from your
+   program. Nevertheless, you can run and test a piece of code
+   containing holes, by using the :ghc-flag:`-fdefer-typed-holes` flag. This
+   flag defers errors produced by typed holes until runtime, and
+   converts them into compile-time warnings. These warnings can in turn
+   be suppressed entirely by :ghc-flag:`-Wno-typed-holes <-Wtyped-holes>`.
+
+   The same behaviour for "``Variable out of scope``" errors, it terminates
+   compilation by default. You can defer such errors by using the
+   :ghc-flag:`-fdefer-out-of-scope-variables` flag. This flag defers errors
+   produced by out of scope variables until runtime, and
+   converts them into compile-time warnings. These warnings can in turn
+   be suppressed entirely by :ghc-flag:`-Wno-deferred-out-of-scope-variables
+   <-Wdeferred-out-of-scope-variables>`.
+
+   The result is that a hole or a variable will behave like ``undefined``, but with
+   the added benefits that it shows a warning at compile time, and will
+   show the same message if it gets evaluated at runtime. This behaviour
+   follows that of the :ghc-flag:`-fdefer-type-errors` option, which implies
+   :ghc-flag:`-fdefer-typed-holes` and :ghc-flag:`-fdefer-out-of-scope-variables`.
+   See :ref:`defer-type-errors`.
+
+-  All unbound identifiers are treated as typed holes, *whether or not
+   they start with an underscore*. The only difference is in the error
+   message: ::
+
+       cons z = z : True : _x : y
+
+   yields the errors
+
+   .. code-block:: none
+
+       Foo.hs:3:21: error:
+          Found hole: _x :: Bool
+          Or perhaps ‘_x’ is mis-spelled, or not in scope
+          In the first argument of ‘(:)’, namely ‘_x’
+          In the second argument of ‘(:)’, namely ‘_x : y’
+          In the second argument of ‘(:)’, namely ‘True : _x : y’
+          Relevant bindings include
+            z :: Bool (bound at Foo.hs:3:6)
+          cons :: Bool -> [Bool] (bound at Foo.hs:3:1)
+          Valid hole fits include
+            z :: Bool (bound at mpt.hs:2:6)
+            otherwise :: Bool
+              (imported from ‘Prelude’ at mpt.hs:1:8-10
+              (and originally defined in ‘GHC.Base’))
+            False :: Bool
+              (imported from ‘Prelude’ at mpt.hs:1:8-10
+              (and originally defined in ‘GHC.Types’))
+            True :: Bool
+              (imported from ‘Prelude’ at mpt.hs:1:8-10
+              (and originally defined in ‘GHC.Types’))
+            maxBound :: forall a. Bounded a => a
+              with maxBound @Bool
+              (imported from ‘Prelude’ at mpt.hs:1:8-10
+              (and originally defined in ‘GHC.Enum’))
+            minBound :: forall a. Bounded a => a
+              with minBound @Bool
+              (imported from ‘Prelude’ at mpt.hs:1:8-10
+              (and originally defined in ‘GHC.Enum’))
+
+       Foo.hs:3:26: error:
+           Variable not in scope: y :: [Bool]
+
+   More information is given for explicit holes (i.e. ones that start
+   with an underscore), than for out-of-scope variables, because the
+   latter are often unintended typos, so the extra information is
+   distracting. If you want the detailed information, use a leading
+   underscore to make explicit your intent to use a hole.
+
+-  Unbound identifiers with the same name are never unified, even within
+   the same function, but shown individually. For example: ::
+
+       cons = _x : _x
+
+   results in the following errors:
+
+   .. code-block:: none
+
+      unbound.hs:1:8:
+          Found hole '_x' with type: a
+          Where: `a' is a rigid type variable bound by
+                     the inferred type of cons :: [a] at unbound.hs:1:1
+          In the first argument of `(:)', namely `_x'
+          In the expression: _x : _x
+          In an equation for `cons': cons = _x : _x
+          Relevant bindings include cons :: [a] (bound at unbound.hs:1:1)
+
+      unbound.hs:1:13:
+          Found hole: _x :: [a]
+          Where: ‘a’ is a rigid type variable bound by
+                  the inferred type of cons :: [a]
+                  at unbound.hs:3:1-12
+          Or perhaps ‘_x’ is mis-spelled, or not in scope
+          In the second argument of ‘(:)’, namely ‘_x’
+          In the expression: _x : _x
+          In an equation for ‘cons’: cons = _x : _x
+          Relevant bindings include cons :: [a] (bound at unbound.hs:3:1)
+          Valid hole fits include
+            cons :: forall a. [a]
+              with cons @a
+              (defined at mpt.hs:3:1)
+            mempty :: forall a. Monoid a => a
+              with mempty @[a]
+              (imported from ‘Prelude’ at mpt.hs:1:8-10
+              (and originally defined in ‘GHC.Base’))
+
+   Notice the two different types reported for the two different
+   occurrences of ``_x``.
+
+-  No language extension is required to use typed holes. The lexeme
+   "``_``" was previously illegal in Haskell, but now has a more
+   informative error message. The lexeme "``_x``" is a perfectly legal
+   variable, and its behaviour is unchanged when it is in scope. For
+   example ::
+
+       f _x = _x + 1
+
+   does not elicit any errors. Only a variable *that is not in scope*
+   (whether or not it starts with an underscore) is treated as an error
+   (which it always was), albeit now with a more informative error
+   message.
+
+-  Unbound data constructors used in expressions behave exactly as
+   above. However, unbound data constructors used in *patterns* cannot
+   be deferred, and instead bring compilation to a halt. (In
+   implementation terms, they are reported by the renamer rather than
+   the type checker.)
+
+- The list of valid hole fits is found by checking which bindings in scope
+  would fit into the hole. As an example, compiling the following module with
+  GHC: ::
+
+      import Data.List (inits)
+
+      g :: [String]
+      g = _ "hello, world"
+
+  yields the errors:
+
+
+  .. code-block:: none
+
+
+    • Found hole: _ :: [Char] -> [String]
+    • In the expression: _
+      In the expression: _ "hello, world"
+      In an equation for ‘g’: g = _ "hello, world"
+    • Relevant bindings include g :: [String] (bound at mpt.hs:6:1)
+      Valid hole fits include
+        lines :: String -> [String]
+          (imported from ‘Prelude’ at mpt.hs:3:8-9
+           (and originally defined in ‘base-4.11.0.0:Data.OldList’))
+        words :: String -> [String]
+          (imported from ‘Prelude’ at mpt.hs:3:8-9
+           (and originally defined in ‘base-4.11.0.0:Data.OldList’))
+        inits :: forall a. [a] -> [[a]]
+          with inits @Char
+          (imported from ‘Data.List’ at mpt.hs:4:19-23
+           (and originally defined in ‘base-4.11.0.0:Data.OldList’))
+        repeat :: forall a. a -> [a]
+          with repeat @String
+          (imported from ‘Prelude’ at mpt.hs:3:8-9
+           (and originally defined in ‘GHC.List’))
+        fail :: forall (m :: * -> *). Monad m => forall a. String -> m a
+          with fail @[] @String
+          (imported from ‘Prelude’ at mpt.hs:3:8-9
+           (and originally defined in ‘GHC.Base’))
+        return :: forall (m :: * -> *). Monad m => forall a. a -> m a
+          with return @[] @String
+          (imported from ‘Prelude’ at mpt.hs:3:8-9
+           (and originally defined in ‘GHC.Base’))
+        pure :: forall (f :: * -> *). Applicative f => forall a. a -> f a
+          with pure @[] @String
+          (imported from ‘Prelude’ at mpt.hs:3:8-9
+           (and originally defined in ‘GHC.Base’))
+        read :: forall a. Read a => String -> a
+          with read @[String]
+          (imported from ‘Prelude’ at mpt.hs:3:8-9
+           (and originally defined in ‘Text.Read’))
+        mempty :: forall a. Monoid a => a
+          with mempty @([Char] -> [String])
+          (imported from ‘Prelude’ at mpt.hs:3:8-9
+           (and originally defined in ‘GHC.Base’))
+
+There are a few flags for controlling the amount of context information shown
+for typed holes:
+
+.. ghc-flag:: -fshow-hole-constraints
+    :shortdesc: Show constraints when reporting typed holes.
+    :type: dynamic
+    :category: verbosity
+
+    When reporting typed holes, also print constraints that are in scope.
+    Example: ::
+
+        f :: Eq a => a -> Bool
+        f x = _
+
+    results in the following message:
+
+    .. code-block:: none
+
+      show_constraints.hs:4:7: error:
+          • Found hole: _ :: Bool
+          • In the expression: _
+            In an equation for ‘f’: f x = _
+          • Relevant bindings include
+              x :: a (bound at show_constraints.hs:4:3)
+              f :: a -> Bool (bound at show_constraints.hs:4:1)
+            Constraints include Eq a (from show_constraints.hs:3:1-22)
+            Valid hole fits include
+              otherwise :: Bool
+              False :: Bool
+              True :: Bool
+              maxBound :: forall a. Bounded a => a
+                with maxBound @Bool
+              minBound :: forall a. Bounded a => a
+                with minBound @Bool
+
+.. _typed-hole-valid-hole-fits:
+
+Valid Hole Fits
+-------------------
+GHC sometimes suggests valid hole fits for typed holes, which is
+configurable by a few flags.
+
+.. ghc-flag:: -fno-show-valid-hole-fits
+    :shortdesc: Disables showing a list of valid hole fits for typed holes
+        in type error messages.
+    :type: dynamic
+    :category: verbosity
+
+    :default: off
+
+    This flag can be toggled to turn off the display of valid hole fits
+    entirely.
+
+.. ghc-flag:: -fmax-valid-hole-fits=⟨n⟩
+    :shortdesc: *default: 6.* Set the maximum number of valid hole fits for
+        typed holes to display in type error messages.
+    :type: dynamic
+    :reverse: -fno-max-valid-hole-fits
+    :category: verbosity
+
+    :default: 6
+
+    The list of valid hole fits is limited by displaying up to 6
+    hole fits per hole. The number of hole fits shown can be set by this
+    flag. Turning the limit off with :ghc-flag:`-fno-max-valid-hole-fits`
+    displays all found hole fits.
+
+
+.. ghc-flag:: -fshow-type-of-hole-fits
+    :shortdesc: Toggles whether to show the type of the valid hole fits
+       in the output.
+    :type: dynamic
+    :category: verbosity
+    :reverse: -fno-type-of-hole-fits
+
+    :default: on
+
+    By default, the hole fits show the type of the hole fit.
+    This can be turned off by the reverse of this flag.
+
+
+
+.. ghc-flag:: -fshow-type-app-of-hole-fits
+    :shortdesc: Toggles whether to show the type application of the valid
+       hole fits in the output.
+    :type: dynamic
+    :category: verbosity
+    :reverse: -fno-show-type-app-of-hole-fits
+
+    :default: on
+
+    By default, the hole fits show the type application needed to make
+    this hole fit fit the type of the hole, e.g. for the hole
+    ``(_ :: Int -> [Int])``, ``mempty`` is a hole fit with
+    ``mempty @(Int -> [Int])``. This can be toggled off with
+    the reverse of this flag.
+
+.. ghc-flag:: -fshow-docs-of-hole-fits
+    :shortdesc: Toggles whether to show the documentation of the valid
+       hole fits in the output.
+    :type: dynamic
+    :category: verbosity
+    :reverse: -fno-show-docs-of-hole-fits
+
+    :default: off
+
+    It can sometime be the case that the name and type of a valid hole
+    fit is not enough to realize what the fit stands for. This flag
+    adds the documentation of the fit to the message, if the
+    documentation is available (and the module from which the function
+    comes was compiled with the ``-haddock`` flag).
+
+.. ghc-flag:: -fshow-type-app-vars-of-hole-fits
+    :shortdesc: Toggles whether to show what type each quantified
+       variable takes in a valid hole fit.
+    :type: dynamic
+    :category: verbosity
+    :reverse: -fno-show-type-app-vars-of-hole-fits
+
+    :default: on
+
+    By default, the hole fits show the type application needed to make
+    this hole fit fit the type of the hole, e.g. for the hole
+    ``(_ :: Int -> [Int])``, ``mempty :: Monoid a => a`` is a hole fit
+    with ``mempty @(Int -> [Int])``. This flag toggles whether to show
+    ``a ~ (Int -> [Int])`` instead of ``mempty @(Int -> [Int])`` in the where
+    clause of the valid hole fit message.
+
+.. ghc-flag:: -fshow-provenance-of-hole-fits
+    :shortdesc: Toggles whether to show the provenance of the valid hole fits
+       in the output.
+    :type: dynamic
+    :category: verbosity
+    :reverse: -fno-show-provenance-of-hole-fits
+
+    :default: on
+
+    By default, each hole fit shows the provenance information of its
+    hole fit, i.e. where it was bound or defined, and what module
+    it was originally defined in if it was imported. This can be toggled
+    off using the reverse of this flag.
+
+
+.. ghc-flag:: -funclutter-valid-hole-fits
+    :shortdesc: Unclutter the list of valid hole fits by not showing
+        provenance nor type applications of suggestions.
+    :type: dynamic
+    :category: verbosity
+
+    :default: off
+
+    This flag can be toggled to decrease the verbosity of the valid hole fit
+    suggestions by not showing the provenance nor type application of the
+    suggestions.
+
+
+
+.. _typed-holes-refinement-hole-fits:
+
+Refinement Hole Fits
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+When the flag :ghc-flag:`-frefinement-level-hole-fits=⟨n⟩` is set to an
+``n`` larger than ``0``, GHC will offer up a list of valid refinement
+hole fits, which are valid hole fits that need up to ``n`` levels of
+additional refinement to be complete, where each level represents an additional
+hole in the hole fit that requires filling in.  As an example, consider the
+hole in ::
+
+  f :: [Integer] -> Integer
+  f = _
+
+When the refinement level is not set, it will only offer valid hole fits
+suggestions: ::
+
+  Valid hole fits include
+    f :: [Integer] -> Integer
+    head :: forall a. [a] -> a
+      with head @Integer
+    last :: forall a. [a] -> a
+      with last @Integer
+    maximum :: forall (t :: * -> *).
+                Foldable t =>
+                forall a. Ord a => t a -> a
+      with maximum @[] @Integer
+    minimum :: forall (t :: * -> *).
+                Foldable t =>
+                forall a. Ord a => t a -> a
+      with minimum @[] @Integer
+    product :: forall (t :: * -> *).
+                Foldable t =>
+                forall a. Num a => t a -> a
+      with product @[] @Integer
+    sum :: forall (t :: * -> *).
+            Foldable t =>
+            forall a. Num a => t a -> a
+      with sum @[] @Integer
+
+However, with :ghc-flag:`-frefinement-level-hole-fits=⟨n⟩` set to e.g. `1`,
+it will additionally offer up a list of refinement hole fits, in this case: ::
+
+  Valid refinement hole fits include
+    foldl1 (_ :: Integer -> Integer -> Integer)
+      with foldl1 @[] @Integer
+      where foldl1 :: forall (t :: * -> *).
+                      Foldable t =>
+                      forall a. (a -> a -> a) -> t a -> a
+    foldr1 (_ :: Integer -> Integer -> Integer)
+      with foldr1 @[] @Integer
+      where foldr1 :: forall (t :: * -> *).
+                      Foldable t =>
+                      forall a. (a -> a -> a) -> t a -> a
+    const (_ :: Integer)
+      with const @Integer @[Integer]
+      where const :: forall a b. a -> b -> a
+    ($) (_ :: [Integer] -> Integer)
+      with ($) @'GHC.Types.LiftedRep @[Integer] @Integer
+      where ($) :: forall a b. (a -> b) -> a -> b
+    fail (_ :: String)
+      with fail @((->) [Integer]) @Integer
+      where fail :: forall (m :: * -> *).
+                    Monad m =>
+                    forall a. String -> m a
+    return (_ :: Integer)
+      with return @((->) [Integer]) @Integer
+      where return :: forall (m :: * -> *). Monad m => forall a. a -> m a
+    (Some refinement hole fits suppressed;
+      use -fmax-refinement-hole-fits=N or -fno-max-refinement-hole-fits)
+
+Which shows that the hole could be replaced with e.g. ``foldl1 _``. While not
+fixing the hole, this can help users understand what options they have.
+
+.. ghc-flag:: -frefinement-level-hole-fits=⟨n⟩
+    :shortdesc: *default: off.* Sets the level of refinement of the
+         refinement hole fits, where level ``n`` means that hole fits
+         of up to ``n`` holes will be considered.
+    :type: dynamic
+    :reverse: -fno-refinement-level-hole-fits
+    :category: verbosity
+
+    :default: off
+
+    The list of valid refinement hole fits is generated by considering
+    hole fits with a varying amount of additional holes. The amount of
+    holes in a refinement can be set by this flag. If the flag is set to 0
+    or not set at all, no valid refinement hole fits will be suggested.
+
+.. ghc-flag:: -fabstract-refinement-hole-fits
+    :shortdesc: *default: off.* Toggles whether refinements where one or more
+         of the holes are abstract are reported.
+    :type: dynamic
+    :reverse: -fno-abstract-refinement-hole-fits
+    :category: verbosity
+
+    :default: off
+
+    Valid list of valid refinement hole fits can often grow large when
+    the refinement level is ``>= 2``, with holes like ``head _ _`` or
+    ``fst _ _``, which are valid refinements, but which are unlikely to be
+    relevant since one or more of the holes are still completely open, in that
+    neither the type nor kind of those holes are constrained by the proposed
+    identifier at all. By default, such holes are not reported. By turning this
+    flag on, such holes are included in the list of valid refinement hole fits.
+
+.. ghc-flag:: -fmax-refinement-hole-fits=⟨n⟩
+    :shortdesc: *default: 6.* Set the maximum number of refinement hole fits
+         for typed holes to display in type error messages.
+    :type: dynamic
+    :reverse: -fno-max-refinement-hole-fits
+    :category: verbosity
+
+    :default: 6
+
+    The list of valid refinement hole fits is limited by displaying up to 6
+    hole fits per hole. The number of hole fits shown can be set by this
+    flag. Turning the limit off with :ghc-flag:`-fno-max-refinement-hole-fits`
+    displays all found hole fits.
+
+.. ghc-flag:: -fshow-hole-matches-of-hole-fits
+    :shortdesc: Toggles whether to show the type of the additional holes
+       in refinement hole fits.
+    :type: dynamic
+    :category: verbosity
+    :reverse: -fno-show-hole-matches-of-hole-fits
+
+    :default: on
+
+    The types of the additional holes in refinement hole fits are displayed
+    in the output, e.g. ``foldl1 (_ :: a -> a -> a)`` is a refinement
+    for the hole ``_ :: [a] -> a``. If this flag is toggled off, the output
+    will display only ``foldl1 _``, which can be used as a direct replacement
+    for the hole, without requiring ``-XScopedTypeVariables``.
+
+
+
+
+Sorting Valid Hole Fits
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+There are currently two ways to sort valid hole fits.
+Sorting can be toggled with :ghc-flag:`-fsort-valid-hole-fits`
+
+.. ghc-flag:: -fno-sort-valid-hole-fits
+    :shortdesc: Disables the sorting of the list of valid hole fits for typed holes
+        in type error messages.
+    :type: dynamic
+    :reverse: -fsort-valid-hole-fits
+    :category: verbosity
+
+    :default: off
+
+    By default the valid hole fits are sorted to show the most relevant
+    hole fits at the top of the list of valid hole fits. This can be
+    toggled off with this flag.
+
+.. ghc-flag:: -fsort-by-size-hole-fits
+    :shortdesc: Sort valid hole fits by size.
+    :type: dynamic
+    :reverse: -fno-sort-by-size-hole-fits
+
+    :default: on
+
+    Sorts by how big the types the quantified type variables in the type of the
+    function would have to be in order to match the type of the hole.
+
+
+.. ghc-flag:: -fsort-by-subsumption-hole-fits
+    :shortdesc: Sort valid hole fits by subsumption.
+    :type: dynamic
+    :reverse: -fno-sort-by-subsumption-hole-fits
+
+    :default: off
+
+    An alternative sort. Sorts by checking which hole fits subsume other
+    hole fits, such that if hole fit a could be used as hole fits for
+    hole fit b, then b appears before a in the output. It is more precise than
+    the default sort, but also a lot slower, since a subsumption check has to be
+    run for each pair of valid hole fits.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/types.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/types.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f5fd5d1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/types.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+.. _data-type-extensions:
+
+Types
+=====
+
+.. toctree::
+    :maxdepth: 1
+
+    nullary_types
+    datatype_contexts
+    infix_tycons
+    type_operators
+    liberal_type_synonyms
+    existential_quantification
+    gadt_syntax
+    gadt
+    type_families
+    data_kinds
+    poly_kinds
+    levity_polymorphism
+    type_literals
+    type_applications
+    rank_polymorphism
+    impredicative_types
+    type_errors
+    defer_type_errors
+    roles
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/undecidable_super_classes.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/undecidable_super_classes.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e6f33e2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/undecidable_super_classes.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,56 @@
+Undecidable (or recursive) superclasses
+---------------------------------------
+
+.. extension:: UndecidableSuperClasses
+    :shortdesc: Allow all superclass constraints, including those that may
+        result in non-termination of the typechecker.
+
+    :since: 8.0.1
+
+    Allow all superclass constraints, including those that may result in
+    non-termination of the typechecker.
+
+The language extension :extension:`UndecidableSuperClasses` allows much more flexible
+constraints in superclasses.
+
+A class cannot generally have itself as a superclass. So this is illegal ::
+
+    class C a => D a where ...
+    class D a => C a where ...
+
+GHC implements this test conservatively when type functions, or type variables,
+are involved. For example ::
+
+    type family F a :: Constraint
+    class F a => C a where ...
+
+GHC will complain about this, because you might later add ::
+
+    type instance F Int = C Int
+
+and now we'd be in a superclass loop.  Here's an example involving a type variable ::
+
+   class f (C f) => C f
+   class c       => Id c
+
+If we expanded the superclasses of ``C Id`` we'd get first ``Id (C Id)`` and
+thence ``C Id`` again.
+
+But superclass constraints like these are sometimes useful, and the conservative
+check is annoying where no actual recursion is involved.
+
+Moreover genuninely-recursive superclasses are sometimes useful. Here's a real-life
+example (#10318) ::
+
+     class (Frac (Frac a) ~ Frac a,
+            Fractional (Frac a),
+            IntegralDomain (Frac a))
+         => IntegralDomain a where
+      type Frac a :: Type
+
+Here the superclass cycle does terminate but it's not entirely straightforward
+to see that it does.
+
+With the language extension :extension:`UndecidableSuperClasses` GHC lifts all restrictions
+on superclass constraints. If there really *is* a loop, GHC will only
+expand it to finite depth.
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/unicode_syntax.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/unicode_syntax.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..aa1d8e8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/unicode_syntax.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+.. _unicode-syntax:
+
+Unicode syntax
+--------------
+
+.. extension:: UnicodeSyntax
+    :shortdesc: Enable unicode syntax.
+
+    :since: 6.8.1
+
+    Enable the use of Unicode characters in place of their equivalent ASCII
+    sequences.
+
+The language extension :extension:`UnicodeSyntax` enables
+Unicode characters to be used to stand for certain ASCII character
+sequences. The following alternatives are provided:
+
++--------------+---------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------+
+| ASCII        | Unicode       | Code point  | Name                                    |
+|              | alternative   |             |                                         |
++==============+===============+=============+=========================================+
+| ``::``       | ∷             | 0x2237      | PROPORTION                              |
++--------------+---------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------+
+| ``=>``       | ⇒             | 0x21D2      | RIGHTWARDS DOUBLE ARROW                 |
++--------------+---------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------+
+| ``->``       | →             | 0x2192      | RIGHTWARDS ARROW                        |
++--------------+---------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------+
+| ``<-``       | ←             | 0x2190      | LEFTWARDS ARROW                         |
++--------------+---------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------+
+| ``>-``       | ⤚             | 0x291a      | RIGHTWARDS ARROW-TAIL                   |
++--------------+---------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------+
+| ``-<``       | ⤙             | 0x2919      | LEFTWARDS ARROW-TAIL                    |
++--------------+---------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------+
+| ``>>-``      | ⤜             | 0x291C      | RIGHTWARDS DOUBLE ARROW-TAIL            |
++--------------+---------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------+
+| ``-<<``      | ⤛             | 0x291B      | LEFTWARDS DOUBLE ARROW-TAIL             |
++--------------+---------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------+
+| ``*``        | ★             | 0x2605      | BLACK STAR                              |
++--------------+---------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------+
+| ``forall``   | ∀             | 0x2200      | FOR ALL                                 |
++--------------+---------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------+
+| ``(|``       | ⦇             | 0x2987      | Z NOTATION LEFT IMAGE BRACKET           |
++--------------+---------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------+
+| ``|)``       | ⦈             | 0x2988      | Z NOTATION RIGHT IMAGE BRACKET          |
++--------------+---------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------+
+| ``[|``       | ⟦             | 0x27E6      | MATHEMATICAL LEFT WHITE SQUARE BRACKET  |
++--------------+---------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------+
+| ``|]``       | ⟧             | 0x27E7      | MATHEMATICAL RIGHT WHITE SQUARE BRACKET |
++--------------+---------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------+
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/exts/view_patterns.rst b/docs/users_guide/exts/view_patterns.rst
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a6fe54f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/users_guide/exts/view_patterns.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,142 @@
+.. _view-patterns:
+
+View patterns
+-------------
+
+.. extension:: ViewPatterns
+    :shortdesc: Enable view patterns.
+
+    :since: 6.10.1
+
+    Allow use of view pattern syntax.
+
+View patterns are enabled by the language extension :extension:`ViewPatterns`. More
+information and examples of view patterns can be found on the
+:ghc-wiki:`Wiki page <view-patterns>`.
+
+View patterns are somewhat like pattern guards that can be nested inside
+of other patterns. They are a convenient way of pattern-matching against
+values of abstract types. For example, in a programming language
+implementation, we might represent the syntax of the types of the
+language as follows: ::
+
+    type Typ
+
+    data TypView = Unit
+                 | Arrow Typ Typ
+
+    view :: Typ -> TypView
+
+    -- additional operations for constructing Typ's ...
+
+The representation of Typ is held abstract, permitting implementations
+to use a fancy representation (e.g., hash-consing to manage sharing).
+Without view patterns, using this signature is a little inconvenient: ::
+
+    size :: Typ -> Integer
+    size t = case view t of
+      Unit -> 1
+      Arrow t1 t2 -> size t1 + size t2
+
+It is necessary to iterate the case, rather than using an equational
+function definition. And the situation is even worse when the matching
+against ``t`` is buried deep inside another pattern.
+
+View patterns permit calling the view function inside the pattern and
+matching against the result: ::
+
+    size (view -> Unit) = 1
+    size (view -> Arrow t1 t2) = size t1 + size t2
+
+That is, we add a new form of pattern, written ⟨expression⟩ ``->``
+⟨pattern⟩ that means "apply the expression to whatever we're trying to
+match against, and then match the result of that application against the
+pattern". The expression can be any Haskell expression of function type,
+and view patterns can be used wherever patterns are used.
+
+The semantics of a pattern ``(`` ⟨exp⟩ ``->`` ⟨pat⟩ ``)`` are as
+follows:
+
+-  Scoping:
+   The variables bound by the view pattern are the variables bound by
+   ⟨pat⟩.
+
+   Any variables in ⟨exp⟩ are bound occurrences, but variables bound "to
+   the left" in a pattern are in scope. This feature permits, for
+   example, one argument to a function to be used in the view of another
+   argument. For example, the function ``clunky`` from
+   :ref:`pattern-guards` can be written using view patterns as follows: ::
+
+       clunky env (lookup env -> Just val1) (lookup env -> Just val2) = val1 + val2
+       ...other equations for clunky...
+
+   More precisely, the scoping rules are:
+
+   -  In a single pattern, variables bound by patterns to the left of a
+      view pattern expression are in scope. For example: ::
+
+          example :: Maybe ((String -> Integer,Integer), String) -> Bool
+          example (Just ((f,_), f -> 4)) = True
+
+      Additionally, in function definitions, variables bound by matching
+      earlier curried arguments may be used in view pattern expressions
+      in later arguments: ::
+
+          example :: (String -> Integer) -> String -> Bool
+          example f (f -> 4) = True
+
+      That is, the scoping is the same as it would be if the curried
+      arguments were collected into a tuple.
+
+   -  In mutually recursive bindings, such as ``let``, ``where``, or the
+      top level, view patterns in one declaration may not mention
+      variables bound by other declarations. That is, each declaration
+      must be self-contained. For example, the following program is not
+      allowed: ::
+
+          let {(x -> y) = e1 ;
+               (y -> x) = e2 } in x
+
+   (For some amplification on this design choice see :ghc-ticket:`4061`.
+
+-  Typing: If ⟨exp⟩ has type ⟨T1⟩ ``->`` ⟨T2⟩ and ⟨pat⟩ matches a ⟨T2⟩,
+   then the whole view pattern matches a ⟨T1⟩.
+
+-  Matching: To the equations in Section 3.17.3 of the `Haskell 98
+   Report <http://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/>`__, add the following: ::
+
+       case v of { (e -> p) -> e1 ; _ -> e2 }
+        =
+       case (e v) of { p -> e1 ; _ -> e2 }
+
+   That is, to match a variable ⟨v⟩ against a pattern ``(`` ⟨exp⟩ ``->``
+   ⟨pat⟩ ``)``, evaluate ``(`` ⟨exp⟩ ⟨v⟩ ``)`` and match the result
+   against ⟨pat⟩.
+
+-  Efficiency: When the same view function is applied in multiple
+   branches of a function definition or a case expression (e.g., in
+   ``size`` above), GHC makes an attempt to collect these applications
+   into a single nested case expression, so that the view function is
+   only applied once. Pattern compilation in GHC follows the matrix
+   algorithm described in Chapter 4 of `The Implementation of Functional
+   Programming
+   Languages <http://research.microsoft.com/~simonpj/Papers/slpj-book-1987/>`__.
+   When the top rows of the first column of a matrix are all view
+   patterns with the "same" expression, these patterns are transformed
+   into a single nested case. This includes, for example, adjacent view
+   patterns that line up in a tuple, as in
+
+   ::
+
+       f ((view -> A, p1), p2) = e1
+       f ((view -> B, p3), p4) = e2
+
+   The current notion of when two view pattern expressions are "the
+   same" is very restricted: it is not even full syntactic equality.
+   However, it does include variables, literals, applications, and
+   tuples; e.g., two instances of ``view ("hi", "there")`` will be
+   collected. However, the current implementation does not compare up to
+   alpha-equivalence, so two instances of ``(x, view x -> y)`` will not
+   be coalesced.
+
+
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/glasgow_exts.rst b/docs/users_guide/glasgow_exts.rst
deleted file mode 100644
index ddfc5a4..0000000
--- a/docs/users_guide/glasgow_exts.rst
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,16986 +0,0 @@
-.. index::
-   single: language, GHC extensions
-
-As with all known Haskell systems, GHC implements some extensions to the
-standard Haskell language. They can all be enabled or disabled by command line
-flags or language pragmas. By default GHC understands the most recent Haskell
-version it supports, plus a handful of extensions.
-
-Some of the Glasgow extensions serve to give you access to the
-underlying facilities with which we implement Haskell. Thus, you can get
-at the Raw Iron, if you are willing to write some non-portable code at a
-more primitive level. You need not be “stuck” on performance because of
-the implementation costs of Haskell's "high-level" features—you can
-always code "under" them. In an extreme case, you can write all your
-time-critical code in C, and then just glue it together with Haskell!
-
-Before you get too carried away working at the lowest level (e.g.,
-sloshing ``MutableByteArray#``\ s around your program), you may wish to
-check if there are libraries that provide a "Haskellised veneer" over
-the features you want. The separate
-`libraries documentation <../libraries/index.html>`__ describes all the
-libraries that come with GHC.
-
-.. _options-language:
-
-Language options
-================
-
-.. index::
-   single: language; option
-   single: options; language
-   single: extensions; options controlling
-
-The language extensions control what variation of the language are
-permitted.
-
-Language options can be controlled in two ways:
-
--  Every language option can switched on by a command-line flag
-   "``-X...``" (e.g. ``-XTemplateHaskell``), and switched off by the
-   flag "``-XNo...``"; (e.g. ``-XNoTemplateHaskell``).
-
--  Language options recognised by Cabal can also be enabled using the
-   ``LANGUAGE`` pragma, thus ``{-# LANGUAGE TemplateHaskell #-}`` (see
-   :ref:`language-pragma`).
-
-GHC supports these language options:
-
-.. extension-print::
-    :type: table
-
-Although not recommended, the deprecated :ghc-flag:`-fglasgow-exts` flag enables
-a large swath of the extensions supported by GHC at once.
-
-.. ghc-flag:: -fglasgow-exts
-    :shortdesc: Deprecated. Enable most language extensions;
-        see :ref:`options-language` for exactly which ones.
-    :type: dynamic
-    :reverse: -fno-glasgow-exts
-    :category: misc
-
-    The flag ``-fglasgow-exts`` is equivalent to enabling the following extensions:
-
-    .. include:: what_glasgow_exts_does.rst
-
-    Enabling these options is the *only* effect of ``-fglasgow-exts``. We are trying
-    to move away from this portmanteau flag, and towards enabling features
-    individually.
-
-
-.. extension:: Haskell2010
-    :shortdesc: Use the Haskell 2010 language variant.
-
-    Compile Haskell 2010 language variant. Enables the
-    following language extensions:
-
-    .. hlist::
-
-     * :extension:`ImplicitPrelude`
-     * :extension:`StarIsType`
-     * :extension:`CUSKs`
-     * :extension:`MonomorphismRestriction`
-     * :extension:`DatatypeContexts`
-     * :extension:`TraditionalRecordSyntax`
-     * :extension:`EmptyDataDecls`
-     * :extension:`ForeignFunctionInterface`
-     * :extension:`PatternGuards`
-     * :extension:`DoAndIfThenElse`
-     * :extension:`RelaxedPolyRec`
-
-
-.. extension:: Haskell98
-    :shortdesc: Use the Haskell 2010 language variant.
-
-    Compile using Haskell 98 language variant. Enables the
-    following language extensions:
-
-    .. hlist::
-
-     * :extension:`ImplicitPrelude`
-     * :extension:`StarIsType`
-     * :extension:`CUSKs`
-     * :extension:`MonomorphismRestriction`
-     * :extension:`NPlusKPatterns`
-     * :extension:`DatatypeContexts`
-     * :extension:`TraditionalRecordSyntax`
-     * :extension:`NondecreasingIndentation`
-
-.. _primitives:
-
-Unboxed types and primitive operations
-======================================
-
-GHC is built on a raft of primitive data types and operations;
-"primitive" in the sense that they cannot be defined in Haskell itself.
-While you really can use this stuff to write fast code, we generally
-find it a lot less painful, and more satisfying in the long run, to use
-higher-level language features and libraries. With any luck, the code
-you write will be optimised to the efficient unboxed version in any
-case. And if it isn't, we'd like to know about it.
-
-All these primitive data types and operations are exported by the
-library ``GHC.Prim``, for which there is
-:ghc-prim-ref:`detailed online documentation <GHC.Prim.>`. (This
-documentation is generated from the file ``compiler/prelude/primops.txt.pp``.)
-
-If you want to mention any of the primitive data types or operations in
-your program, you must first import ``GHC.Prim`` to bring them into
-scope. Many of them have names ending in ``#``, and to mention such names
-you need the :extension:`MagicHash` extension.
-
-The primops make extensive use of `unboxed types <#glasgow-unboxed>`__
-and `unboxed tuples <#unboxed-tuples>`__, which we briefly summarise
-here.
-
-.. _glasgow-unboxed:
-
-Unboxed types
--------------
-
-Most types in GHC are boxed, which means that values of that type are
-represented by a pointer to a heap object. The representation of a
-Haskell ``Int``, for example, is a two-word heap object. An unboxed
-type, however, is represented by the value itself, no pointers or heap
-allocation are involved.
-
-Unboxed types correspond to the “raw machine” types you would use in C:
-``Int#`` (long int), ``Double#`` (double), ``Addr#`` (void \*), etc. The
-*primitive operations* (PrimOps) on these types are what you might
-expect; e.g., ``(+#)`` is addition on ``Int#``\ s, and is the
-machine-addition that we all know and love—usually one instruction.
-
-Primitive (unboxed) types cannot be defined in Haskell, and are
-therefore built into the language and compiler. Primitive types are
-always unlifted; that is, a value of a primitive type cannot be bottom.
-(Note: a "boxed" type means that a value is represented by a pointer to a heap
-object; a "lifted" type means that terms of that type may be bottom. See
-the next paragraph for an example.)
-We use the convention (but it is only a convention) that primitive
-types, values, and operations have a ``#`` suffix (see
-:ref:`magic-hash`). For some primitive types we have special syntax for
-literals, also described in the `same section <#magic-hash>`__.
-
-Primitive values are often represented by a simple bit-pattern, such as
-``Int#``, ``Float#``, ``Double#``. But this is not necessarily the case:
-a primitive value might be represented by a pointer to a heap-allocated
-object. Examples include ``Array#``, the type of primitive arrays. Thus,
-``Array#`` is an unlifted, boxed type. A
-primitive array is heap-allocated because it is too big a value to fit
-in a register, and would be too expensive to copy around; in a sense, it
-is accidental that it is represented by a pointer. If a pointer
-represents a primitive value, then it really does point to that value:
-no unevaluated thunks, no indirections. Nothing can be at the other end
-of the pointer than the primitive value. A numerically-intensive program
-using unboxed types can go a *lot* faster than its “standard”
-counterpart—we saw a threefold speedup on one example.
-
-Unboxed type kinds
-------------------
-
-Because unboxed types are represented without the use of pointers, we
-cannot store them in use a polymorphic datatype at an unboxed type.
-For example, the ``Just`` node
-of ``Just 42#`` would have to be different from the ``Just`` node of
-``Just 42``; the former stores an integer directly, while the latter
-stores a pointer. GHC currently does not support this variety of ``Just``
-nodes (nor for any other datatype). Accordingly, the *kind* of an unboxed
-type is different from the kind of a boxed type.
-
-The Haskell Report describes that ``*`` (spelled ``Type`` and imported from
-``Data.Kind`` in the GHC dialect of Haskell) is the kind of ordinary datatypes,
-such as ``Int``. Furthermore, type constructors can have kinds with arrows; for
-example, ``Maybe`` has kind ``Type -> Type``. Unboxed types have a kind that
-specifies their runtime representation. For example, the type ``Int#`` has kind
-``TYPE 'IntRep`` and ``Double#`` has kind ``TYPE 'DoubleRep``. These kinds say
-that the runtime representation of an ``Int#`` is a machine integer, and the
-runtime representation of a ``Double#`` is a machine double-precision floating
-point. In contrast, the kind ``Type`` is actually just a synonym for ``TYPE
-'LiftedRep``. More details of the ``TYPE`` mechanisms appear in the `section
-on runtime representation polymorphism <#runtime-rep>`__.
-
-Given that ``Int#``'s kind is not ``Type``, it then it follows that ``Maybe
-Int#`` is disallowed. Similarly, because type variables tend to be of kind
-``Type`` (for example, in ``(.) :: (b -> c) -> (a -> b) -> a -> c``, all the
-type variables have kind ``Type``), polymorphism tends not to work over
-primitive types. Stepping back, this makes some sense, because a polymorphic
-function needs to manipulate the pointers to its data, and most primitive types
-are unboxed.
-
-There are some restrictions on the use of primitive types:
-
--  You cannot define a newtype whose representation type (the argument
-   type of the data constructor) is an unboxed type. Thus, this is
-   illegal:
-
-   ::
-
-         newtype A = MkA Int#
-
-   However, this restriction can be relaxed by enabling
-   :extension:`UnliftedNewtypes`.  The `section on unlifted newtypes
-   <#unlifted-newtypes>`__ details the behavior of such types.
-
--  You cannot bind a variable with an unboxed type in a *top-level*
-   binding.
-
--  You cannot bind a variable with an unboxed type in a *recursive*
-   binding.
-
--  You may bind unboxed variables in a (non-recursive, non-top-level)
-   pattern binding, but you must make any such pattern-match strict.
-   (Failing to do so emits a warning :ghc-flag:`-Wunbanged-strict-patterns`.)
-   For example, rather than:
-
-   ::
-
-         data Foo = Foo Int Int#
-
-         f x = let (Foo a b, w) = ..rhs.. in ..body..
-
-   you must write:
-
-   ::
-
-         data Foo = Foo Int Int#
-
-         f x = let !(Foo a b, w) = ..rhs.. in ..body..
-
-   since ``b`` has type ``Int#``.
-
-.. _unboxed-tuples:
-
-Unboxed tuples
---------------
-
-.. extension:: UnboxedTuples
-    :shortdesc: Enable the use of unboxed tuple syntax.
-
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-
-Unboxed tuples aren't really exported by ``GHC.Exts``; they are a
-syntactic extension (:extension:`UnboxedTuples`). An
-unboxed tuple looks like this: ::
-
-    (# e_1, ..., e_n #)
-
-where ``e_1..e_n`` are expressions of any type (primitive or
-non-primitive). The type of an unboxed tuple looks the same.
-
-Note that when unboxed tuples are enabled, ``(#`` is a single lexeme, so
-for example when using operators like ``#`` and ``#-`` you need to write
-``( # )`` and ``( #- )`` rather than ``(#)`` and ``(#-)``.
-
-Unboxed tuples are used for functions that need to return multiple
-values, but they avoid the heap allocation normally associated with
-using fully-fledged tuples. When an unboxed tuple is returned, the
-components are put directly into registers or on the stack; the unboxed
-tuple itself does not have a composite representation. Many of the
-primitive operations listed in ``primops.txt.pp`` return unboxed tuples.
-In particular, the ``IO`` and ``ST`` monads use unboxed tuples to avoid
-unnecessary allocation during sequences of operations.
-
-There are some restrictions on the use of unboxed tuples:
-
--  The typical use of unboxed tuples is simply to return multiple
-   values, binding those multiple results with a ``case`` expression,
-   thus:
-
-   ::
-
-         f x y = (# x+1, y-1 #)
-         g x = case f x x of { (# a, b #) -> a + b }
-
-   You can have an unboxed tuple in a pattern binding, thus
-
-   ::
-
-         f x = let (# p,q #) = h x in ..body..
-
-   If the types of ``p`` and ``q`` are not unboxed, the resulting
-   binding is lazy like any other Haskell pattern binding. The above
-   example desugars like this:
-
-   ::
-
-         f x = let t = case h x of { (# p,q #) -> (p,q) }
-                   p = fst t
-                   q = snd t
-               in ..body..
-
-   Indeed, the bindings can even be recursive.
-
-.. _unboxed-sums:
-
-Unboxed sums
-------------
-
-.. extension:: UnboxedSums
-    :shortdesc: Enable unboxed sums.
-
-    :since: 8.2.1
-
-    Enable the use of unboxed sum syntax.
-
-`-XUnboxedSums` enables new syntax for anonymous, unboxed sum types. The syntax
-for an unboxed sum type with N alternatives is ::
-
-    (# t_1 | t_2 | ... | t_N #)
-
-where ``t_1`` ... ``t_N`` are types (which can be unlifted, including unboxed
-tuples and sums).
-
-Unboxed tuples can be used for multi-arity alternatives. For example: ::
-
-    (# (# Int, String #) | Bool #)
-
-The term level syntax is similar. Leading and preceding bars (`|`) indicate which
-alternative it is. Here are two terms of the type shown above: ::
-
-    (# (# 1, "foo" #) | #) -- first alternative
-
-    (# | True #) -- second alternative
-
-The pattern syntax reflects the term syntax: ::
-
-    case x of
-      (# (# i, str #) | #) -> ...
-      (# | bool #) -> ...
-
-Unboxed sums are "unboxed" in the sense that, instead of allocating sums in the
-heap and representing values as pointers, unboxed sums are represented as their
-components, just like unboxed tuples. These "components" depend on alternatives
-of a sum type. Like unboxed tuples, unboxed sums are lazy in their lifted
-components.
-
-The code generator tries to generate as compact layout as possible for each
-unboxed sum. In the best case, size of an unboxed sum is size of its biggest
-alternative plus one word (for a tag). The algorithm for generating the memory
-layout for a sum type works like this:
-
-- All types are classified as one of these classes: 32bit word, 64bit word,
-  32bit float, 64bit float, pointer.
-
-- For each alternative of the sum type, a layout that consists of these fields
-  is generated. For example, if an alternative has ``Int``, ``Float#`` and
-  ``String`` fields, the layout will have an 32bit word, 32bit float and
-  pointer fields.
-
-- Layout fields are then overlapped so that the final layout will be as compact
-  as possible. For example, suppose we have the unboxed sum: ::
-
-    (# (# Word32#, String, Float# #)
-    |  (# Float#, Float#, Maybe Int #) #)
-
-  The final layout will be something like ::
-
-    Int32, Float32, Float32, Word32, Pointer
-
-  The first ``Int32`` is for the tag. There are two ``Float32`` fields because
-  floating point types can't overlap with other types, because of limitations of
-  the code generator that we're hoping to overcome in the future. The second
-  alternative needs two ``Float32`` fields: The ``Word32`` field is for the
-  ``Word32#`` in the first alternative. The ``Pointer`` field is shared between
-  ``String`` and ``Maybe Int`` values of the alternatives.
-
-  As another example, this is the layout for the unboxed version of ``Maybe a``
-  type, ``(# (# #) | a #)``: ::
-
-    Int32, Pointer
-
-  The ``Pointer`` field is not used when tag says that it's ``Nothing``.
-  Otherwise ``Pointer`` points to the value in ``Just``. As mentioned
-  above, this type is lazy in its lifted field. Therefore, the type ::
-
-    data Maybe' a = Maybe' (# (# #) | a #)
-
-  is *precisely* isomorphic to the type ``Maybe a``, although its memory
-  representation is different.
-
-  In the degenerate case where all the alternatives have zero width, such
-  as the ``Bool``-like ``(# (# #) | (# #) #)``, the unboxed sum layout only
-  has an ``Int32`` tag field (i.e., the whole thing is represented by an integer).
-
-.. _unlifted-newtypes:
-
-Unlifted Newtypes
------------------
-
-.. extension:: UnliftedNewtypes
-    :shortdesc: Enable unlifted newtypes.
-
-    :since: 8.10.1
-
-    Enable the use of newtypes over types with non-lifted runtime representations.
-
-GHC implements an :extension:`UnliftedNewtypes` extension as specified in
-`this GHC proposal <https://github.com/ghc-proposals/ghc-proposals/blob/master/proposals/0013-unlifted-newtypes.rst>`_.
-:extension:`UnliftedNewtypes` relaxes the restrictions around what types can appear inside
-of a `newtype`. For example, the type ::
-
-    newtype A = MkA Int#
-
-is accepted when this extension is enabled. This creates a type
-``A :: TYPE 'IntRep`` and a data constructor ``MkA :: Int# -> A``.
-Although the kind of ``A`` is inferred by GHC, there is nothing visually
-distictive about this type that indicated that is it not of kind ``Type``
-like newtypes typically are. `GADTSyntax <#gadt-style>`__ can be used to
-provide a kind signature for additional clarity ::
-
-    newtype A :: TYPE 'IntRep where
-      MkA :: Int# -> A
-
-The ``Coercible`` machinery works with unlifted newtypes just like it does with
-lifted types. In either of the equivalent formulations of ``A`` given above,
-users would additionally have access to a coercion between ``A`` and ``Int#``.
-
-As a consequence of the
-`levity-polymorphic binder restriction <#levity-polymorphic-restrictions>`__,
-levity-polymorphic fields are disallowed in data constructors
-of data types declared using ``data``. However, since ``newtype`` data
-constructor application is implemented as a coercion instead of as function
-application, this restriction does not apply to the field inside a ``newtype``
-data constructor. Thus, the type checker accepts ::
-
-    newtype Identity# :: forall (r :: RuntimeRep). TYPE r -> TYPE r where
-      MkIdentity# :: forall (r :: RuntimeRep) (a :: TYPE r). a -> Identity# a
-
-And with `UnboxedSums <#unboxed-sums>`__ enabled ::
-
-    newtype Maybe# :: forall (r :: RuntimeRep). TYPE r -> TYPE (SumRep '[r, TupleRep '[]]) where
-      MkMaybe# :: forall (r :: RuntimeRep) (a :: TYPE r). (# a | (# #) #) -> Maybe# a
-
-This extension also relaxes some of the restrictions around data family
-instances. In particular, :extension:`UnliftedNewtypes` permits a
-``newtype instance`` to be given a return kind of ``TYPE r``, not just
-``Type``. For example, the following ``newtype instance`` declarations would be
-permitted: ::
-
-     class Foo a where
-       data FooKey a :: TYPE 'IntRep
-     class Bar (r :: RuntimeRep) where
-       data BarType r :: TYPE r
-
-     instance Foo Bool where
-       newtype FooKey Bool = FooKeyBoolC Int#
-     instance Bar 'WordRep where
-       newtype BarType 'WordRep = BarTypeWordRepC Word#
-
-It is worth noting that :extension:`UnliftedNewtypes` is *not* required to give
-the data families themselves return kinds involving ``TYPE``, such as the
-``FooKey`` and ``BarType`` examples above. The extension is
-only required for ``newtype instance`` declarations, such as ``FooKeyBoolC``
-and ``BarTypeWorkRepC`` above.
-
-This extension impacts the determination of whether or not a newtype has
-a Complete User-Specified Kind Signature (CUSK). The exact impact is specified
-`the section on CUSKs <#complete-kind-signatures>`__.
-
-.. _syntax-extns:
-
-Syntactic extensions
-====================
-
-.. _unicode-syntax:
-
-Unicode syntax
---------------
-
-.. extension:: UnicodeSyntax
-    :shortdesc: Enable unicode syntax.
-
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Enable the use of Unicode characters in place of their equivalent ASCII
-    sequences.
-
-The language extension :extension:`UnicodeSyntax` enables
-Unicode characters to be used to stand for certain ASCII character
-sequences. The following alternatives are provided:
-
-+--------------+---------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------+
-| ASCII        | Unicode       | Code point  | Name                                    |
-|              | alternative   |             |                                         |
-+==============+===============+=============+=========================================+
-| ``::``       | ∷             | 0x2237      | PROPORTION                              |
-+--------------+---------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------+
-| ``=>``       | ⇒             | 0x21D2      | RIGHTWARDS DOUBLE ARROW                 |
-+--------------+---------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------+
-| ``->``       | →             | 0x2192      | RIGHTWARDS ARROW                        |
-+--------------+---------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------+
-| ``<-``       | ←             | 0x2190      | LEFTWARDS ARROW                         |
-+--------------+---------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------+
-| ``>-``       | ⤚             | 0x291a      | RIGHTWARDS ARROW-TAIL                   |
-+--------------+---------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------+
-| ``-<``       | ⤙             | 0x2919      | LEFTWARDS ARROW-TAIL                    |
-+--------------+---------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------+
-| ``>>-``      | ⤜             | 0x291C      | RIGHTWARDS DOUBLE ARROW-TAIL            |
-+--------------+---------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------+
-| ``-<<``      | ⤛             | 0x291B      | LEFTWARDS DOUBLE ARROW-TAIL             |
-+--------------+---------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------+
-| ``*``        | ★             | 0x2605      | BLACK STAR                              |
-+--------------+---------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------+
-| ``forall``   | ∀             | 0x2200      | FOR ALL                                 |
-+--------------+---------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------+
-| ``(|``       | ⦇             | 0x2987      | Z NOTATION LEFT IMAGE BRACKET           |
-+--------------+---------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------+
-| ``|)``       | ⦈             | 0x2988      | Z NOTATION RIGHT IMAGE BRACKET          |
-+--------------+---------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------+
-| ``[|``       | ⟦             | 0x27E6      | MATHEMATICAL LEFT WHITE SQUARE BRACKET  |
-+--------------+---------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------+
-| ``|]``       | ⟧             | 0x27E7      | MATHEMATICAL RIGHT WHITE SQUARE BRACKET |
-+--------------+---------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------+
-
-.. _magic-hash:
-
-The magic hash
---------------
-
-.. extension:: MagicHash
-    :shortdesc: Allow ``#`` as a postfix modifier on identifiers.
-
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Enables the use of the hash character (``#``) as an identifier suffix.
-
-The language extension :extension:`MagicHash` allows ``#`` as a postfix modifier
-to identifiers. Thus, ``x#`` is a valid variable, and ``T#`` is a valid type
-constructor or data constructor.
-
-The hash sign does not change semantics at all. We tend to use variable
-names ending in "#" for unboxed values or types (e.g. ``Int#``), but
-there is no requirement to do so; they are just plain ordinary
-variables. Nor does the :extension:`MagicHash` extension bring anything into
-scope. For example, to bring ``Int#`` into scope you must import
-``GHC.Prim`` (see :ref:`primitives`); the :extension:`MagicHash` extension then
-allows you to *refer* to the ``Int#`` that is now in scope. Note that
-with this option, the meaning of ``x#y = 0`` is changed: it defines a
-function ``x#`` taking a single argument ``y``; to define the operator
-``#``, put a space: ``x # y = 0``.
-
-The :extension:`MagicHash` also enables some new forms of literals (see
-:ref:`glasgow-unboxed`):
-
--  ``'x'#`` has type ``Char#``
-
--  ``"foo"#`` has type ``Addr#``
-
--  ``3#`` has type ``Int#``. In general, any Haskell integer lexeme
-   followed by a ``#`` is an ``Int#`` literal, e.g. ``-0x3A#`` as well as
-   ``32#``.
-
--  ``3##`` has type ``Word#``. In general, any non-negative Haskell
-   integer lexeme followed by ``##`` is a ``Word#``.
-
--  ``3.2#`` has type ``Float#``.
-
--  ``3.2##`` has type ``Double#``
-
-.. _negative-literals:
-
-Negative literals
------------------
-
-.. extension:: NegativeLiterals
-    :shortdesc: Enable support for negative literals.
-
-    :since: 7.8.1
-
-    Enable the use of un-parenthesized negative numeric literals.
-
-The literal ``-123`` is, according to Haskell98 and Haskell 2010,
-desugared as ``negate (fromInteger 123)``. The language extension
-:extension:`NegativeLiterals` means that it is instead desugared as
-``fromInteger (-123)``.
-
-This can make a difference when the positive and negative range of a
-numeric data type don't match up. For example, in 8-bit arithmetic -128
-is representable, but +128 is not. So ``negate (fromInteger 128)`` will
-elicit an unexpected integer-literal-overflow message.
-
-.. _num-decimals:
-
-Fractional looking integer literals
------------------------------------
-
-.. extension:: NumDecimals
-    :shortdesc: Enable support for 'fractional' integer literals.
-
-    :since: 7.8.1
-
-    Allow the use of floating-point literal syntax for integral types.
-
-Haskell 2010 and Haskell 98 define floating literals with the syntax
-``1.2e6``. These literals have the type ``Fractional a => a``.
-
-The language extension :extension:`NumDecimals` allows you to also use the
-floating literal syntax for instances of ``Integral``, and have values
-like ``(1.2e6 :: Num a => a)``
-
-.. _binary-literals:
-
-Binary integer literals
------------------------
-
-.. extension:: BinaryLiterals
-    :shortdesc: Enable support for binary literals.
-
-    :since: 7.10.1
-
-    Allow the use of binary notation in integer literals.
-
-Haskell 2010 and Haskell 98 allows for integer literals to be given in
-decimal, octal (prefixed by ``0o`` or ``0O``), or hexadecimal notation
-(prefixed by ``0x`` or ``0X``).
-
-The language extension :extension:`BinaryLiterals` adds support for expressing
-integer literals in binary notation with the prefix ``0b`` or ``0B``. For
-instance, the binary integer literal ``0b11001001`` will be desugared into
-``fromInteger 201`` when :extension:`BinaryLiterals` is enabled.
-
-.. _hex-float-literals:
-
-Hexadecimal floating point literals
------------------------------------
-
-.. extension:: HexFloatLiterals
-    :shortdesc: Enable support for :ref:`hexadecimal floating point literals <hex-float-literals>`.
-
-    :since: 8.4.1
-
-    Allow writing floating point literals using hexadecimal notation.
-
-The hexadecimal notation for floating point literals is useful when you
-need to specify floating point constants precisely, as the literal notation
-corresponds closely to the underlying bit-encoding of the number.
-
-In this notation floating point numbers are written using hexadecimal digits,
-and so the digits are interpreted using base 16, rather then the usual 10.
-This means that digits left of the decimal point correspond to positive
-powers of 16, while the ones to the right correspond to negative ones.
-
-You may also write an explicit exponent, which is similar to the exponent
-in decimal notation with the following differences:
-- the exponent begins with ``p`` instead of ``e``
-- the exponent is written in base ``10`` (**not** 16)
-- the base of the exponent is ``2`` (**not** 16).
-
-In terms of the underlying bit encoding, each hexadecimal digit corresponds
-to 4 bits, and you may think of the exponent as "moving" the floating point
-by one bit left (negative) or right (positive).  Here are some examples:
-
--  ``0x0.1``     is the same as ``1/16``
--  ``0x0.01``    is the same as ``1/256``
--  ``0xF.FF``    is the same as ``15 + 15/16 + 15/256``
--  ``0x0.1p4``   is the same as ``1``
--  ``0x0.1p-4``  is the same as ``1/256``
--  ``0x0.1p12``  is the same as ``256``
-
-
-
-
-.. _numeric-underscores:
-
-Numeric underscores
--------------------
-
-.. extension:: NumericUnderscores
-    :shortdesc: Enable support for :ref:`numeric underscores <numeric-underscores>`.
-
-    :since: 8.6.1
-
-    Allow the use of underscores in numeric literals.
-
-GHC allows for numeric literals to be given in decimal, octal, hexadecimal,
-binary, or float notation.
-
-The language extension :extension:`NumericUnderscores` adds support for expressing
-underscores in numeric literals.
-For instance, the numeric literal ``1_000_000`` will be parsed into
-``1000000`` when :extension:`NumericUnderscores` is enabled.
-That is, underscores in numeric literals are ignored when
-:extension:`NumericUnderscores` is enabled.
-See also :ghc-ticket:`14473`.
-
-For example:
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-    -- decimal
-    million    = 1_000_000
-    billion    = 1_000_000_000
-    lightspeed = 299_792_458
-    version    = 8_04_1
-    date       = 2017_12_31
-
-    -- hexadecimal
-    red_mask = 0xff_00_00
-    size1G   = 0x3fff_ffff
-
-    -- binary
-    bit8th   = 0b01_0000_0000
-    packbits = 0b1_11_01_0000_0_111
-    bigbits  = 0b1100_1011__1110_1111__0101_0011
-
-    -- float
-    pi       = 3.141_592_653_589_793
-    faraday  = 96_485.332_89
-    avogadro = 6.022_140_857e+23
-
-    -- function
-    isUnderMillion = (< 1_000_000)
-
-    clip64M x
-        | x > 0x3ff_ffff = 0x3ff_ffff
-        | otherwise = x
-
-    test8bit x = (0b01_0000_0000 .&. x) /= 0
-
-About validity:
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-    x0 = 1_000_000   -- valid
-    x1 = 1__000000   -- valid
-    x2 = 1000000_    -- invalid
-    x3 = _1000000    -- invalid
-
-    e0 = 0.0001      -- valid
-    e1 = 0.000_1     -- valid
-    e2 = 0_.0001     -- invalid
-    e3 = _0.0001     -- invalid
-    e4 = 0._0001     -- invalid
-    e5 = 0.0001_     -- invalid
-
-    f0 = 1e+23       -- valid
-    f1 = 1_e+23      -- valid
-    f2 = 1__e+23     -- valid
-    f3 = 1e_+23      -- invalid
-
-    g0 = 1e+23       -- valid
-    g1 = 1e+_23      -- invalid
-    g2 = 1e+23_      -- invalid
-
-    h0 = 0xffff      -- valid
-    h1 = 0xff_ff     -- valid
-    h2 = 0x_ffff     -- valid
-    h3 = 0x__ffff    -- valid
-    h4 = _0xffff     -- invalid
-
-.. _pattern-guards:
-
-Pattern guards
---------------
-
-.. extension:: NoPatternGuards
-    :shortdesc: Disable pattern guards.
-        Implied by :extension:`Haskell98`.
-
-    :implied by: :extension:`Haskell98`
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-Disable `pattern guards
-<http://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/haskell2010/haskellch3.html#x8-460003.13>`__.
-
-.. _view-patterns:
-
-View patterns
--------------
-
-.. extension:: ViewPatterns
-    :shortdesc: Enable view patterns.
-
-    :since: 6.10.1
-
-    Allow use of view pattern syntax.
-
-View patterns are enabled by the language extension :extension:`ViewPatterns`. More
-information and examples of view patterns can be found on the
-:ghc-wiki:`Wiki page <view-patterns>`.
-
-View patterns are somewhat like pattern guards that can be nested inside
-of other patterns. They are a convenient way of pattern-matching against
-values of abstract types. For example, in a programming language
-implementation, we might represent the syntax of the types of the
-language as follows: ::
-
-    type Typ
-
-    data TypView = Unit
-                 | Arrow Typ Typ
-
-    view :: Typ -> TypView
-
-    -- additional operations for constructing Typ's ...
-
-The representation of Typ is held abstract, permitting implementations
-to use a fancy representation (e.g., hash-consing to manage sharing).
-Without view patterns, using this signature is a little inconvenient: ::
-
-    size :: Typ -> Integer
-    size t = case view t of
-      Unit -> 1
-      Arrow t1 t2 -> size t1 + size t2
-
-It is necessary to iterate the case, rather than using an equational
-function definition. And the situation is even worse when the matching
-against ``t`` is buried deep inside another pattern.
-
-View patterns permit calling the view function inside the pattern and
-matching against the result: ::
-
-    size (view -> Unit) = 1
-    size (view -> Arrow t1 t2) = size t1 + size t2
-
-That is, we add a new form of pattern, written ⟨expression⟩ ``->``
-⟨pattern⟩ that means "apply the expression to whatever we're trying to
-match against, and then match the result of that application against the
-pattern". The expression can be any Haskell expression of function type,
-and view patterns can be used wherever patterns are used.
-
-The semantics of a pattern ``(`` ⟨exp⟩ ``->`` ⟨pat⟩ ``)`` are as
-follows:
-
--  Scoping:
-   The variables bound by the view pattern are the variables bound by
-   ⟨pat⟩.
-
-   Any variables in ⟨exp⟩ are bound occurrences, but variables bound "to
-   the left" in a pattern are in scope. This feature permits, for
-   example, one argument to a function to be used in the view of another
-   argument. For example, the function ``clunky`` from
-   :ref:`pattern-guards` can be written using view patterns as follows: ::
-
-       clunky env (lookup env -> Just val1) (lookup env -> Just val2) = val1 + val2
-       ...other equations for clunky...
-
-   More precisely, the scoping rules are:
-
-   -  In a single pattern, variables bound by patterns to the left of a
-      view pattern expression are in scope. For example: ::
-
-          example :: Maybe ((String -> Integer,Integer), String) -> Bool
-          example (Just ((f,_), f -> 4)) = True
-
-      Additionally, in function definitions, variables bound by matching
-      earlier curried arguments may be used in view pattern expressions
-      in later arguments: ::
-
-          example :: (String -> Integer) -> String -> Bool
-          example f (f -> 4) = True
-
-      That is, the scoping is the same as it would be if the curried
-      arguments were collected into a tuple.
-
-   -  In mutually recursive bindings, such as ``let``, ``where``, or the
-      top level, view patterns in one declaration may not mention
-      variables bound by other declarations. That is, each declaration
-      must be self-contained. For example, the following program is not
-      allowed: ::
-
-          let {(x -> y) = e1 ;
-               (y -> x) = e2 } in x
-
-   (For some amplification on this design choice see :ghc-ticket:`4061`.
-
--  Typing: If ⟨exp⟩ has type ⟨T1⟩ ``->`` ⟨T2⟩ and ⟨pat⟩ matches a ⟨T2⟩,
-   then the whole view pattern matches a ⟨T1⟩.
-
--  Matching: To the equations in Section 3.17.3 of the `Haskell 98
-   Report <http://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/>`__, add the following: ::
-
-       case v of { (e -> p) -> e1 ; _ -> e2 }
-        =
-       case (e v) of { p -> e1 ; _ -> e2 }
-
-   That is, to match a variable ⟨v⟩ against a pattern ``(`` ⟨exp⟩ ``->``
-   ⟨pat⟩ ``)``, evaluate ``(`` ⟨exp⟩ ⟨v⟩ ``)`` and match the result
-   against ⟨pat⟩.
-
--  Efficiency: When the same view function is applied in multiple
-   branches of a function definition or a case expression (e.g., in
-   ``size`` above), GHC makes an attempt to collect these applications
-   into a single nested case expression, so that the view function is
-   only applied once. Pattern compilation in GHC follows the matrix
-   algorithm described in Chapter 4 of `The Implementation of Functional
-   Programming
-   Languages <http://research.microsoft.com/~simonpj/Papers/slpj-book-1987/>`__.
-   When the top rows of the first column of a matrix are all view
-   patterns with the "same" expression, these patterns are transformed
-   into a single nested case. This includes, for example, adjacent view
-   patterns that line up in a tuple, as in
-
-   ::
-
-       f ((view -> A, p1), p2) = e1
-       f ((view -> B, p3), p4) = e2
-
-   The current notion of when two view pattern expressions are "the
-   same" is very restricted: it is not even full syntactic equality.
-   However, it does include variables, literals, applications, and
-   tuples; e.g., two instances of ``view ("hi", "there")`` will be
-   collected. However, the current implementation does not compare up to
-   alpha-equivalence, so two instances of ``(x, view x -> y)`` will not
-   be coalesced.
-
-.. _n-k-patterns:
-
-n+k patterns
-------------
-
-.. extension:: NPlusKPatterns
-    :shortdesc: Enable support for ``n+k`` patterns.
-        Implied by :extension:`Haskell98`.
-
-    :implied by: :extension:`Haskell98`
-    :since: 6.12.1
-
-    Enable use of ``n+k`` patterns.
-
-.. _recursive-do-notation:
-
-The recursive do-notation
--------------------------
-
-.. extension:: RecursiveDo
-    :shortdesc: Enable recursive do (mdo) notation.
-
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Allow the use of recursive ``do`` notation.
-
-The do-notation of Haskell 98 does not allow *recursive bindings*, that
-is, the variables bound in a do-expression are visible only in the
-textually following code block. Compare this to a let-expression, where
-bound variables are visible in the entire binding group.
-
-It turns out that such recursive bindings do indeed make sense for a
-variety of monads, but not all. In particular, recursion in this sense
-requires a fixed-point operator for the underlying monad, captured by
-the ``mfix`` method of the ``MonadFix`` class, defined in
-``Control.Monad.Fix`` as follows: ::
-
-    class Monad m => MonadFix m where
-       mfix :: (a -> m a) -> m a
-
-Haskell's ``Maybe``, ``[]`` (list), ``ST`` (both strict and lazy
-versions), ``IO``, and many other monads have ``MonadFix`` instances. On
-the negative side, the continuation monad, with the signature
-``(a -> r) -> r``, does not.
-
-For monads that do belong to the ``MonadFix`` class, GHC provides an
-extended version of the do-notation that allows recursive bindings. The
-:extension:`RecursiveDo` (language pragma: ``RecursiveDo``) provides the
-necessary syntactic support, introducing the keywords ``mdo`` and
-``rec`` for higher and lower levels of the notation respectively. Unlike
-bindings in a ``do`` expression, those introduced by ``mdo`` and ``rec``
-are recursively defined, much like in an ordinary let-expression. Due to
-the new keyword ``mdo``, we also call this notation the *mdo-notation*.
-
-Here is a simple (albeit contrived) example:
-
-::
-
-    {-# LANGUAGE RecursiveDo #-}
-    justOnes = mdo { xs <- Just (1:xs)
-                   ; return (map negate xs) }
-
-or equivalently
-
-::
-
-    {-# LANGUAGE RecursiveDo #-}
-    justOnes = do { rec { xs <- Just (1:xs) }
-                  ; return (map negate xs) }
-
-As you can guess ``justOnes`` will evaluate to ``Just [-1,-1,-1,...``.
-
-GHC's implementation the mdo-notation closely follows the original
-translation as described in the paper `A recursive do for
-Haskell <http://leventerkok.github.io/papers/recdo.pdf>`__, which
-in turn is based on the work `Value Recursion in Monadic
-Computations <http://leventerkok.github.io/papers/erkok-thesis.pdf>`__.
-Furthermore, GHC extends the syntax described in the former paper with a
-lower level syntax flagged by the ``rec`` keyword, as we describe next.
-
-Recursive binding groups
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-The extension :extension:`RecursiveDo` also introduces a new keyword ``rec``, which
-wraps a mutually-recursive group of monadic statements inside a ``do``
-expression, producing a single statement. Similar to a ``let`` statement
-inside a ``do``, variables bound in the ``rec`` are visible throughout
-the ``rec`` group, and below it. For example, compare
-
-::
-
-        do { a <- getChar            do { a <- getChar
-           ; let { r1 = f a r2          ; rec { r1 <- f a r2
-           ;     ; r2 = g r1 }          ;     ; r2 <- g r1 }
-           ; return (r1 ++ r2) }        ; return (r1 ++ r2) }
-
-In both cases, ``r1`` and ``r2`` are available both throughout the
-``let`` or ``rec`` block, and in the statements that follow it. The
-difference is that ``let`` is non-monadic, while ``rec`` is monadic. (In
-Haskell ``let`` is really ``letrec``, of course.)
-
-The semantics of ``rec`` is fairly straightforward. Whenever GHC finds a
-``rec`` group, it will compute its set of bound variables, and will
-introduce an appropriate call to the underlying monadic value-recursion
-operator ``mfix``, belonging to the ``MonadFix`` class. Here is an
-example:
-
-::
-
-    rec { b <- f a c     ===>    (b,c) <- mfix (\ ~(b,c) -> do { b <- f a c
-        ; c <- f b a }                                         ; c <- f b a
-                                                               ; return (b,c) })
-
-As usual, the meta-variables ``b``, ``c`` etc., can be arbitrary
-patterns. In general, the statement ``rec ss`` is desugared to the
-statement
-
-::
-
-    vs <- mfix (\ ~vs -> do { ss; return vs })
-
-where ``vs`` is a tuple of the variables bound by ``ss``.
-
-Note in particular that the translation for a ``rec`` block only
-involves wrapping a call to ``mfix``: it performs no other analysis on
-the bindings. The latter is the task for the ``mdo`` notation, which is
-described next.
-
-The ``mdo`` notation
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-A ``rec``-block tells the compiler where precisely the recursive knot
-should be tied. It turns out that the placement of the recursive knots
-can be rather delicate: in particular, we would like the knots to be
-wrapped around as minimal groups as possible. This process is known as
-*segmentation*, and is described in detail in Section 3.2 of `A
-recursive do for
-Haskell <http://leventerkok.github.io/papers/recdo.pdf>`__.
-Segmentation improves polymorphism and reduces the size of the recursive
-knot. Most importantly, it avoids unnecessary interference caused by a
-fundamental issue with the so-called *right-shrinking* axiom for monadic
-recursion. In brief, most monads of interest (IO, strict state, etc.) do
-*not* have recursion operators that satisfy this axiom, and thus not
-performing segmentation can cause unnecessary interference, changing the
-termination behavior of the resulting translation. (Details can be found
-in Sections 3.1 and 7.2.2 of `Value Recursion in Monadic
-Computations <http://leventerkok.github.io/papers/erkok-thesis.pdf>`__.)
-
-The ``mdo`` notation removes the burden of placing explicit ``rec``
-blocks in the code. Unlike an ordinary ``do`` expression, in which
-variables bound by statements are only in scope for later statements,
-variables bound in an ``mdo`` expression are in scope for all statements
-of the expression. The compiler then automatically identifies minimal
-mutually recursively dependent segments of statements, treating them as
-if the user had wrapped a ``rec`` qualifier around them.
-
-The definition is syntactic:
-
--  A generator ⟨g⟩ *depends* on a textually following generator ⟨g'⟩, if
-
-   -  ⟨g'⟩ defines a variable that is used by ⟨g⟩, or
-
-   -  ⟨g'⟩ textually appears between ⟨g⟩ and ⟨g''⟩, where ⟨g⟩ depends on
-      ⟨g''⟩.
-
--  A *segment* of a given ``mdo``-expression is a minimal sequence of
-   generators such that no generator of the sequence depends on an
-   outside generator. As a special case, although it is not a generator,
-   the final expression in an ``mdo``-expression is considered to form a
-   segment by itself.
-
-Segments in this sense are related to *strongly-connected components*
-analysis, with the exception that bindings in a segment cannot be
-reordered and must be contiguous.
-
-Here is an example ``mdo``-expression, and its translation to ``rec``
-blocks:
-
-::
-
-    mdo { a <- getChar      ===> do { a <- getChar
-        ; b <- f a c                ; rec { b <- f a c
-        ; c <- f b a                ;     ; c <- f b a }
-        ; z <- h a b                ; z <- h a b
-        ; d <- g d e                ; rec { d <- g d e
-        ; e <- g a z                ;     ; e <- g a z }
-        ; putChar c }               ; putChar c }
-
-Note that a given ``mdo`` expression can cause the creation of multiple
-``rec`` blocks. If there are no recursive dependencies, ``mdo`` will
-introduce no ``rec`` blocks. In this latter case an ``mdo`` expression
-is precisely the same as a ``do`` expression, as one would expect.
-
-In summary, given an ``mdo`` expression, GHC first performs
-segmentation, introducing ``rec`` blocks to wrap over minimal recursive
-groups. Then, each resulting ``rec`` is desugared, using a call to
-``Control.Monad.Fix.mfix`` as described in the previous section. The
-original ``mdo``-expression typechecks exactly when the desugared
-version would do so.
-
-Here are some other important points in using the recursive-do notation:
-
--  It is enabled with the extension :extension:`RecursiveDo`, or the
-   ``LANGUAGE RecursiveDo`` pragma. (The same extension enables both
-   ``mdo``-notation, and the use of ``rec`` blocks inside ``do``
-   expressions.)
-
--  ``rec`` blocks can also be used inside ``mdo``-expressions, which
-   will be treated as a single statement. However, it is good style to
-   either use ``mdo`` or ``rec`` blocks in a single expression.
-
--  If recursive bindings are required for a monad, then that monad must
-   be declared an instance of the ``MonadFix`` class.
-
--  The following instances of ``MonadFix`` are automatically provided:
-   List, Maybe, IO. Furthermore, the ``Control.Monad.ST`` and
-   ``Control.Monad.ST.Lazy`` modules provide the instances of the
-   ``MonadFix`` class for Haskell's internal state monad (strict and
-   lazy, respectively).
-
--  Like ``let`` and ``where`` bindings, name shadowing is not allowed
-   within an ``mdo``-expression or a ``rec``-block; that is, all the
-   names bound in a single ``rec`` must be distinct. (GHC will complain
-   if this is not the case.)
-
-.. _applicative-do:
-
-Applicative do-notation
------------------------
-
-.. index::
-   single: Applicative do-notation
-   single: do-notation; Applicative
-
-.. extension:: ApplicativeDo
-    :shortdesc: Enable Applicative do-notation desugaring
-
-    :since: 8.0.1
-
-    Allow use of ``Applicative`` ``do`` notation.
-
-The language option :extension:`ApplicativeDo` enables an alternative translation for
-the do-notation, which uses the operators ``<$>``, ``<*>``, along with ``join``
-as far as possible. There are two main reasons for wanting to do this:
-
--  We can use do-notation with types that are an instance of ``Applicative`` and
-   ``Functor``, but not ``Monad``
--  In some monads, using the applicative operators is more efficient than monadic
-   bind. For example, it may enable more parallelism.
-
-Applicative do-notation desugaring preserves the original semantics, provided
-that the ``Applicative`` instance satisfies ``<*> = ap`` and ``pure = return``
-(these are true of all the common monadic types). Thus, you can normally turn on
-:extension:`ApplicativeDo` without fear of breaking your program. There is one pitfall
-to watch out for; see :ref:`applicative-do-pitfall`.
-
-There are no syntactic changes with :extension:`ApplicativeDo`. The only way it shows
-up at the source level is that you can have a ``do`` expression that doesn't
-require a ``Monad`` constraint. For example, in GHCi: ::
-
-    Prelude> :set -XApplicativeDo
-    Prelude> :t \m -> do { x <- m; return (not x) }
-    \m -> do { x <- m; return (not x) }
-      :: Functor f => f Bool -> f Bool
-
-This example only requires ``Functor``, because it is translated into ``(\x ->
-not x) <$> m``. A more complex example requires ``Applicative``, ::
-
-    Prelude> :t \m -> do { x <- m 'a'; y <- m 'b'; return (x || y) }
-    \m -> do { x <- m 'a'; y <- m 'b'; return (x || y) }
-      :: Applicative f => (Char -> f Bool) -> f Bool
-
-Here GHC has translated the expression into ::
-
-    (\x y -> x || y) <$> m 'a' <*> m 'b'
-
-It is possible to see the actual translation by using :ghc-flag:`-ddump-ds`, but be
-warned, the output is quite verbose.
-
-Note that if the expression can't be translated into uses of ``<$>``, ``<*>``
-only, then it will incur a ``Monad`` constraint as usual. This happens when
-there is a dependency on a value produced by an earlier statement in the
-``do``-block: ::
-
-    Prelude> :t \m -> do { x <- m True; y <- m x; return (x || y) }
-    \m -> do { x <- m True; y <- m x; return (x || y) }
-      :: Monad m => (Bool -> m Bool) -> m Bool
-
-Here, ``m x`` depends on the value of ``x`` produced by the first statement, so
-the expression cannot be translated using ``<*>``.
-
-In general, the rule for when a ``do`` statement incurs a ``Monad`` constraint
-is as follows. If the do-expression has the following form: ::
-
-    do p1 <- E1; ...; pn <- En; return E
-
-where none of the variables defined by ``p1...pn`` are mentioned in ``E1...En``,
-and ``p1...pn`` are all variables or lazy patterns,
-then the expression will only require ``Applicative``. Otherwise, the expression
-will require ``Monad``. The block may return a pure expression ``E`` depending
-upon the results ``p1...pn`` with either ``return`` or ``pure``.
-
-Note: the final statement must match one of these patterns exactly:
-
-- ``return E``
-- ``return $ E``
-- ``pure E``
-- ``pure $ E``
-
-otherwise GHC cannot recognise it as a ``return`` statement, and the
-transformation to use ``<$>`` that we saw above does not apply.  In
-particular, slight variations such as ``return . Just $ x`` or ``let x
-= e in return x`` would not be recognised.
-
-If the final statement is not of one of these forms, GHC falls back to
-standard ``do`` desugaring, and the expression will require a
-``Monad`` constraint.
-
-When the statements of a ``do`` expression have dependencies between
-them, and ``ApplicativeDo`` cannot infer an ``Applicative`` type, it
-uses a heuristic algorithm to try to use ``<*>`` as much as possible.
-This algorithm usually finds the best solution, but in rare complex
-cases it might miss an opportunity.  There is an algorithm that finds
-the optimal solution, provided as an option:
-
-.. ghc-flag:: -foptimal-applicative-do
-    :shortdesc: Use a slower but better algorithm for ApplicativeDo
-    :type: dynamic
-    :reverse: -fno-optimal-applicative-do
-    :category: optimization
-
-    :since: 8.0.1
-
-    Enables an alternative algorithm for choosing where to use ``<*>``
-    in conjunction with the ``ApplicativeDo`` language extension.
-    This algorithm always finds the optimal solution, but it is
-    expensive: ``O(n^3)``, so this option can lead to long compile
-    times when there are very large ``do`` expressions (over 100
-    statements).  The default ``ApplicativeDo`` algorithm is ``O(n^2)``.
-
-
-.. _applicative-do-strict:
-
-Strict patterns
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-
-A strict pattern match in a bind statement prevents
-``ApplicativeDo`` from transforming that statement to use
-``Applicative``.  This is because the transformation would change the
-semantics by making the expression lazier.
-
-For example, this code will require a ``Monad`` constraint::
-
-    > :t \m -> do { (x:xs) <- m; return x }
-    \m -> do { (x:xs) <- m; return x } :: Monad m => m [b] -> m b
-
-but making the pattern match lazy allows it to have a ``Functor`` constraint::
-
-    > :t \m -> do { ~(x:xs) <- m; return x }
-    \m -> do { ~(x:xs) <- m; return x } :: Functor f => f [b] -> f b
-
-A "strict pattern match" is any pattern match that can fail.  For
-example, ``()``, ``(x:xs)``, ``!z``, and ``C x`` are strict patterns,
-but ``x`` and ``~(1,2)`` are not.  For the purposes of
-``ApplicativeDo``, a pattern match against a ``newtype`` constructor
-is considered strict.
-
-When there's a strict pattern match in a sequence of statements,
-``ApplicativeDo`` places a ``>>=`` between that statement and the one
-that follows it.  The sequence may be transformed to use ``<*>``
-elsewhere, but the strict pattern match and the following statement
-will always be connected with ``>>=``, to retain the same strictness
-semantics as the standard do-notation.  If you don't want this, simply
-put a ``~`` on the pattern match to make it lazy.
-
-.. _applicative-do-pitfall:
-
-Things to watch out for
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-Your code should just work as before when :extension:`ApplicativeDo` is enabled,
-provided you use conventional ``Applicative`` instances. However, if you define
-a ``Functor`` or ``Applicative`` instance using do-notation, then it will likely
-get turned into an infinite loop by GHC. For example, if you do this: ::
-
-    instance Functor MyType where
-        fmap f m = do x <- m; return (f x)
-
-Then applicative desugaring will turn it into ::
-
-    instance Functor MyType where
-        fmap f m = fmap (\x -> f x) m
-
-And the program will loop at runtime. Similarly, an ``Applicative`` instance
-like this ::
-
-    instance Applicative MyType where
-        pure = return
-        x <*> y = do f <- x; a <- y; return (f a)
-
-will result in an infinite loop when ``<*>`` is called.
-
-Just as you wouldn't define a ``Monad`` instance using the do-notation, you
-shouldn't define ``Functor`` or ``Applicative`` instance using do-notation (when
-using ``ApplicativeDo``) either. The correct way to define these instances in
-terms of ``Monad`` is to use the ``Monad`` operations directly, e.g. ::
-
-    instance Functor MyType where
-        fmap f m = m >>= return . f
-
-    instance Applicative MyType where
-        pure = return
-        (<*>) = ap
-
-
-.. _parallel-list-comprehensions:
-
-Parallel List Comprehensions
-----------------------------
-
-.. index::
-   single: list comprehensions; parallel
-   single: parallel list comprehensions
-
-.. extension:: ParallelListComp
-    :shortdesc: Enable parallel list comprehensions.
-
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Allow parallel list comprehension syntax.
-
-Parallel list comprehensions are a natural extension to list
-comprehensions. List comprehensions can be thought of as a nice syntax
-for writing maps and filters. Parallel comprehensions extend this to
-include the ``zipWith`` family.
-
-A parallel list comprehension has multiple independent branches of
-qualifier lists, each separated by a ``|`` symbol. For example, the
-following zips together two lists: ::
-
-       [ (x, y) | x <- xs | y <- ys ]
-
-The behaviour of parallel list comprehensions follows that of zip, in
-that the resulting list will have the same length as the shortest
-branch.
-
-We can define parallel list comprehensions by translation to regular
-comprehensions. Here's the basic idea:
-
-Given a parallel comprehension of the form: ::
-
-       [ e | p1 <- e11, p2 <- e12, ...
-           | q1 <- e21, q2 <- e22, ...
-           ...
-       ]
-
-This will be translated to: ::
-
-       [ e | ((p1,p2), (q1,q2), ...) <- zipN [(p1,p2) | p1 <- e11, p2 <- e12, ...]
-                                             [(q1,q2) | q1 <- e21, q2 <- e22, ...]
-                                             ...
-       ]
-
-where ``zipN`` is the appropriate zip for the given number of branches.
-
-.. _generalised-list-comprehensions:
-
-Generalised (SQL-like) List Comprehensions
-------------------------------------------
-
-.. index::
-   single: list comprehensions; generalised
-   single: extended list comprehensions
-   single: group
-   single: SQL
-
-.. extension:: TransformListComp
-    :shortdesc: Enable generalised list comprehensions.
-
-    :since: 6.10.1
-
-    Allow use of generalised list (SQL-like) comprehension syntax. This
-    introduces the ``group``, ``by``, and ``using`` keywords.
-
-Generalised list comprehensions are a further enhancement to the list
-comprehension syntactic sugar to allow operations such as sorting and
-grouping which are familiar from SQL. They are fully described in the
-paper `Comprehensive comprehensions: comprehensions with "order by" and
-"group by" <https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/wp-content/uploads/2007/09/list-comp.pdf>`__,
-except that the syntax we use differs slightly from the paper.
-
-The extension is enabled with the extension :extension:`TransformListComp`.
-
-Here is an example:
-
-::
-
-    employees = [ ("Simon", "MS", 80)
-                , ("Erik", "MS", 100)
-                , ("Phil", "Ed", 40)
-                , ("Gordon", "Ed", 45)
-                , ("Paul", "Yale", 60) ]
-
-    output = [ (the dept, sum salary)
-             | (name, dept, salary) <- employees
-             , then group by dept using groupWith
-             , then sortWith by (sum salary)
-             , then take 5 ]
-
-In this example, the list ``output`` would take on the value:
-
-::
-
-    [("Yale", 60), ("Ed", 85), ("MS", 180)]
-
-There are three new keywords: ``group``, ``by``, and ``using``. (The
-functions ``sortWith`` and ``groupWith`` are not keywords; they are
-ordinary functions that are exported by ``GHC.Exts``.)
-
-There are five new forms of comprehension qualifier, all introduced by
-the (existing) keyword ``then``:
-
--  ::
-
-       then f
-
-   This statement requires that
-   f
-   have the type
-   forall a. [a] -> [a]
-   . You can see an example of its use in the motivating example, as
-   this form is used to apply
-   take 5
-   .
--  ::
-
-       then f by e
-
-   This form is similar to the previous one, but allows you to create a
-   function which will be passed as the first argument to f. As a
-   consequence f must have the type
-   ``forall a. (a -> t) -> [a] -> [a]``. As you can see from the type,
-   this function lets f "project out" some information from the elements
-   of the list it is transforming.
-
-   An example is shown in the opening example, where ``sortWith`` is
-   supplied with a function that lets it find out the ``sum salary`` for
-   any item in the list comprehension it transforms.
-
--  ::
-
-       then group by e using f
-
-   This is the most general of the grouping-type statements. In this
-   form, f is required to have type
-   ``forall a. (a -> t) -> [a] -> [[a]]``. As with the ``then f by e``
-   case above, the first argument is a function supplied to f by the
-   compiler which lets it compute e on every element of the list being
-   transformed. However, unlike the non-grouping case, f additionally
-   partitions the list into a number of sublists: this means that at
-   every point after this statement, binders occurring before it in the
-   comprehension refer to *lists* of possible values, not single values.
-   To help understand this, let's look at an example:
-
-   ::
-
-       -- This works similarly to groupWith in GHC.Exts, but doesn't sort its input first
-       groupRuns :: Eq b => (a -> b) -> [a] -> [[a]]
-       groupRuns f = groupBy (\x y -> f x == f y)
-
-       output = [ (the x, y)
-       | x <- ([1..3] ++ [1..2])
-       , y <- [4..6]
-       , then group by x using groupRuns ]
-
-   This results in the variable ``output`` taking on the value below:
-
-   ::
-
-       [(1, [4, 5, 6]), (2, [4, 5, 6]), (3, [4, 5, 6]), (1, [4, 5, 6]), (2, [4, 5, 6])]
-
-   Note that we have used the ``the`` function to change the type of x
-   from a list to its original numeric type. The variable y, in
-   contrast, is left unchanged from the list form introduced by the
-   grouping.
-
--  ::
-
-       then group using f
-
-   With this form of the group statement, f is required to simply have
-   the type ``forall a. [a] -> [[a]]``, which will be used to group up
-   the comprehension so far directly. An example of this form is as
-   follows:
-
-   ::
-
-       output = [ x
-       | y <- [1..5]
-       , x <- "hello"
-       , then group using inits]
-
-   This will yield a list containing every prefix of the word "hello"
-   written out 5 times:
-
-   ::
-
-       ["","h","he","hel","hell","hello","helloh","hellohe","hellohel","hellohell","hellohello","hellohelloh",...]
-
-.. _monad-comprehensions:
-
-Monad comprehensions
---------------------
-
-.. index::
-   single: monad comprehensions
-
-.. extension:: MonadComprehensions
-    :shortdesc: Enable monad comprehensions.
-
-    :since: 7.2.1
-
-    Enable list comprehension syntax for arbitrary monads.
-
-Monad comprehensions generalise the list comprehension notation,
-including parallel comprehensions (:ref:`parallel-list-comprehensions`)
-and transform comprehensions (:ref:`generalised-list-comprehensions`) to
-work for any monad.
-
-Monad comprehensions support:
-
--  Bindings: ::
-
-       [ x + y | x <- Just 1, y <- Just 2 ]
-
-   Bindings are translated with the ``(>>=)`` and ``return`` functions
-   to the usual do-notation: ::
-
-       do x <- Just 1
-          y <- Just 2
-          return (x+y)
-
--  Guards: ::
-
-       [ x | x <- [1..10], x <= 5 ]
-
-   Guards are translated with the ``guard`` function, which requires a
-   ``MonadPlus`` instance: ::
-
-       do x <- [1..10]
-          guard (x <= 5)
-          return x
-
--  Transform statements (as with :extension:`TransformListComp`): ::
-
-       [ x+y | x <- [1..10], y <- [1..x], then take 2 ]
-
-   This translates to: ::
-
-       do (x,y) <- take 2 (do x <- [1..10]
-                              y <- [1..x]
-                              return (x,y))
-          return (x+y)
-
--  Group statements (as with :extension:`TransformListComp`):
-
-   ::
-
-       [ x | x <- [1,1,2,2,3], then group by x using GHC.Exts.groupWith ]
-       [ x | x <- [1,1,2,2,3], then group using myGroup ]
-
--  Parallel statements (as with :extension:`ParallelListComp`):
-
-   ::
-
-       [ (x+y) | x <- [1..10]
-               | y <- [11..20]
-               ]
-
-   Parallel statements are translated using the ``mzip`` function, which
-   requires a ``MonadZip`` instance defined in
-   :base-ref:`Control.Monad.Zip.`:
-
-   ::
-
-       do (x,y) <- mzip (do x <- [1..10]
-                            return x)
-                        (do y <- [11..20]
-                            return y)
-          return (x+y)
-
-All these features are enabled by default if the :extension:`MonadComprehensions`
-extension is enabled. The types and more detailed examples on how to use
-comprehensions are explained in the previous chapters
-:ref:`generalised-list-comprehensions` and
-:ref:`parallel-list-comprehensions`. In general you just have to replace
-the type ``[a]`` with the type ``Monad m => m a`` for monad
-comprehensions.
-
-.. note::
-    Even though most of these examples are using the list monad, monad
-    comprehensions work for any monad. The ``base`` package offers all
-    necessary instances for lists, which make :extension:`MonadComprehensions`
-    backward compatible to built-in, transform and parallel list
-    comprehensions.
-
-More formally, the desugaring is as follows. We write ``D[ e | Q]`` to
-mean the desugaring of the monad comprehension ``[ e | Q]``:
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-    Expressions: e
-    Declarations: d
-    Lists of qualifiers: Q,R,S
-
-    -- Basic forms
-    D[ e | ]               = return e
-    D[ e | p <- e, Q ]  = e >>= \p -> D[ e | Q ]
-    D[ e | e, Q ]          = guard e >> \p -> D[ e | Q ]
-    D[ e | let d, Q ]      = let d in D[ e | Q ]
-
-    -- Parallel comprehensions (iterate for multiple parallel branches)
-    D[ e | (Q | R), S ]    = mzip D[ Qv | Q ] D[ Rv | R ] >>= \(Qv,Rv) -> D[ e | S ]
-
-    -- Transform comprehensions
-    D[ e | Q then f, R ]                  = f D[ Qv | Q ] >>= \Qv -> D[ e | R ]
-
-    D[ e | Q then f by b, R ]             = f (\Qv -> b) D[ Qv | Q ] >>= \Qv -> D[ e | R ]
-
-    D[ e | Q then group using f, R ]      = f D[ Qv | Q ] >>= \ys ->
-                                            case (fmap selQv1 ys, ..., fmap selQvn ys) of
-                                             Qv -> D[ e | R ]
-
-    D[ e | Q then group by b using f, R ] = f (\Qv -> b) D[ Qv | Q ] >>= \ys ->
-                                            case (fmap selQv1 ys, ..., fmap selQvn ys) of
-                                               Qv -> D[ e | R ]
-
-    where  Qv is the tuple of variables bound by Q (and used subsequently)
-           selQvi is a selector mapping Qv to the ith component of Qv
-
-    Operator     Standard binding       Expected type
-    --------------------------------------------------------------------
-    return       GHC.Base               t1 -> m t2
-    (>>=)        GHC.Base               m1 t1 -> (t2 -> m2 t3) -> m3 t3
-    (>>)         GHC.Base               m1 t1 -> m2 t2         -> m3 t3
-    guard        Control.Monad          t1 -> m t2
-    fmap         GHC.Base               forall a b. (a->b) -> n a -> n b
-    mzip         Control.Monad.Zip      forall a b. m a -> m b -> m (a,b)
-
-The comprehension should typecheck when its desugaring would typecheck,
-except that (as discussed in :ref:`generalised-list-comprehensions`) in the
-"then ``f``" and "then group using ``f``" clauses, when the "by ``b``" qualifier
-is omitted, argument ``f`` should have a polymorphic type. In particular, "then
-``Data.List.sort``" and "then group using ``Data.List.group``" are
-insufficiently polymorphic.
-
-Monad comprehensions support rebindable syntax
-(:ref:`rebindable-syntax`). Without rebindable syntax, the operators
-from the "standard binding" module are used; with rebindable syntax, the
-operators are looked up in the current lexical scope. For example,
-parallel comprehensions will be typechecked and desugared using whatever
-"``mzip``" is in scope.
-
-The rebindable operators must have the "Expected type" given in the
-table above. These types are surprisingly general. For example, you can
-use a bind operator with the type
-
-::
-
-    (>>=) :: T x y a -> (a -> T y z b) -> T x z b
-
-In the case of transform comprehensions, notice that the groups are
-parameterised over some arbitrary type ``n`` (provided it has an
-``fmap``, as well as the comprehension being over an arbitrary monad.
-
-.. _monadfail-desugaring:
-
-New monadic failure desugaring mechanism
-----------------------------------------
-
-.. extension:: MonadFailDesugaring
-    :shortdesc: Enable monadfail desugaring.
-
-    :since: 8.0.1
-
-    Use the ``MonadFail.fail`` instead of the legacy ``Monad.fail`` function
-    when desugaring refutable patterns in ``do`` blocks.
-
-The ``-XMonadFailDesugaring`` extension switches the desugaring of
-``do``-blocks to use ``MonadFail.fail`` instead of ``Monad.fail``.
-
-This extension is enabled by default since GHC 8.6.1, under the
-`MonadFail Proposal (MFP)
-<https://prime.haskell.org/wiki/Libraries/Proposals/MonadFail>`__.
-
-This extension is temporary, and will be deprecated in a future release.
-
-.. _rebindable-syntax:
-
-Rebindable syntax and the implicit Prelude import
--------------------------------------------------
-
-.. extension:: NoImplicitPrelude
-    :shortdesc: Don't implicitly ``import Prelude``.
-        Implied by :extension:`RebindableSyntax`.
-
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Don't import ``Prelude`` by default.
-
-GHC normally imports ``Prelude.hi`` files for
-you. If you'd rather it didn't, then give it a ``-XNoImplicitPrelude``
-option. The idea is that you can then import a Prelude of your own. (But
-don't call it ``Prelude``; the Haskell module namespace is flat, and you
-must not conflict with any Prelude module.)
-
-.. extension:: RebindableSyntax
-    :shortdesc: Employ rebindable syntax.
-        Implies :extension:`NoImplicitPrelude`.
-
-    :implies: :extension:`NoImplicitPrelude`
-    :since: 7.0.1
-
-    Enable rebinding of a variety of usually-built-in operations.
-
-Suppose you are importing a Prelude of your own in order to define your
-own numeric class hierarchy. It completely defeats that purpose if the
-literal "1" means "``Prelude.fromInteger 1``", which is what the Haskell
-Report specifies. So the :extension:`RebindableSyntax` extension causes the
-following pieces of built-in syntax to refer to *whatever is in scope*,
-not the Prelude versions:
-
--  An integer literal ``368`` means "``fromInteger (368::Integer)``",
-   rather than "``Prelude.fromInteger (368::Integer)``".
-
--  Fractional literals are handled in just the same way, except that the
-   translation is ``fromRational (3.68::Rational)``.
-
--  String literals are also handled the same way, except that the
-   translation is ``fromString ("368"::String)``.
-
--  The equality test in an overloaded numeric pattern uses whatever
-   ``(==)`` is in scope.
-
--  The subtraction operation, and the greater-than-or-equal test, in
-   ``n+k`` patterns use whatever ``(-)`` and ``(>=)`` are in scope.
-
--  Negation (e.g. "``- (f x)``") means "``negate (f x)``", both in
-   numeric patterns, and expressions.
-
--  Conditionals (e.g. "``if`` e1 ``then`` e2 ``else`` e3") means
-   "``ifThenElse`` e1 e2 e3". However ``case`` expressions are
-   unaffected.
-
--  "Do" notation is translated using whatever functions ``(>>=)``,
-   ``(>>)``, and ``fail``, are in scope (not the Prelude versions). List
-   comprehensions, ``mdo`` (:ref:`recursive-do-notation`), and parallel
-   array comprehensions, are unaffected.
-
--  Arrow notation (see :ref:`arrow-notation`) uses whatever ``arr``,
-   ``(>>>)``, ``first``, ``app``, ``(|||)`` and ``loop`` functions are
-   in scope. But unlike the other constructs, the types of these
-   functions must match the Prelude types very closely. Details are in
-   flux; if you want to use this, ask!
-
--  List notation, such as ``[x,y]`` or ``[m..n]`` can also be treated
-   via rebindable syntax if you use `-XOverloadedLists`;
-   see :ref:`overloaded-lists`.
-
--  An overloaded label "``#foo``" means "``fromLabel @"foo"``", rather than
-   "``GHC.OverloadedLabels.fromLabel @"foo"``" (see :ref:`overloaded-labels`).
-
-:extension:`RebindableSyntax` implies :extension:`NoImplicitPrelude`.
-
-In all cases (apart from arrow notation), the static semantics should be
-that of the desugared form, even if that is a little unexpected. For
-example, the static semantics of the literal ``368`` is exactly that of
-``fromInteger (368::Integer)``; it's fine for ``fromInteger`` to have
-any of the types: ::
-
-    fromInteger :: Integer -> Integer
-    fromInteger :: forall a. Foo a => Integer -> a
-    fromInteger :: Num a => a -> Integer
-    fromInteger :: Integer -> Bool -> Bool
-
-Be warned: this is an experimental facility, with fewer checks than
-usual. Use ``-dcore-lint`` to typecheck the desugared program. If Core
-Lint is happy you should be all right.
-
-Things unaffected by :extension:`RebindableSyntax`
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-:extension:`RebindableSyntax` does not apply to any code generated from a
-``deriving`` clause or declaration. To see why, consider the following code: ::
-
-    {-# LANGUAGE RebindableSyntax, OverloadedStrings #-}
-    newtype Text = Text String
-
-    fromString :: String -> Text
-    fromString = Text
-
-    data Foo = Foo deriving Show
-
-This will generate code to the effect of: ::
-
-    instance Show Foo where
-      showsPrec _ Foo = showString "Foo"
-
-But because :extension:`RebindableSyntax` and :extension:`OverloadedStrings`
-are enabled, the ``"Foo"`` string literal would now be of type ``Text``, not
-``String``, which ``showString`` doesn't accept! This causes the generated
-``Show`` instance to fail to typecheck. It's hard to imagine any scenario where
-it would be desirable have :extension:`RebindableSyntax` behavior within
-derived code, so GHC simply ignores :extension:`RebindableSyntax` entirely
-when checking derived code.
-
-.. _postfix-operators:
-
-Postfix operators
------------------
-
-.. extension:: PostfixOperators
-    :shortdesc: Enable postfix operators.
-
-    :since: 7.10.1
-
-    Allow the use of post-fix operators
-
-The :extension:`PostfixOperators` extension enables a small extension to the syntax
-of left operator sections, which allows you to define postfix operators.
-The extension is this: the left section ::
-
-      (e !)
-
-is equivalent (from the point of view of both type checking and
-execution) to the expression ::
-
-      ((!) e)
-
-(for any expression ``e`` and operator ``(!)``. The strict Haskell 98
-interpretation is that the section is equivalent to ::
-
-      (\y -> (!) e y)
-
-That is, the operator must be a function of two arguments. GHC allows it
-to take only one argument, and that in turn allows you to write the
-function postfix.
-
-The extension does not extend to the left-hand side of function
-definitions; you must define such a function in prefix form.
-
-.. _tuple-sections:
-
-Tuple sections
---------------
-
-.. extension:: TupleSections
-    :shortdesc: Enable tuple sections.
-
-    :since: 6.12
-
-    Allow the use of tuple section syntax
-
-The :extension:`TupleSections` extension enables partially applied
-tuple constructors. For example, the following program ::
-
-      (, True)
-
-is considered to be an alternative notation for the more unwieldy
-alternative ::
-
-      \x -> (x, True)
-
-You can omit any combination of arguments to the tuple, as in the
-following ::
-
-      (, "I", , , "Love", , 1337)
-
-which translates to ::
-
-      \a b c d -> (a, "I", b, c, "Love", d, 1337)
-
-If you have `unboxed tuples <#unboxed-tuples>`__ enabled, tuple sections
-will also be available for them, like so ::
-
-      (# , True #)
-
-Because there is no unboxed unit tuple, the following expression ::
-
-      (# #)
-
-continues to stand for the unboxed singleton tuple data constructor.
-
-.. _lambda-case:
-
-Lambda-case
------------
-
-.. extension:: LambdaCase
-    :shortdesc: Enable lambda-case expressions.
-
-    :since: 7.6.1
-
-    Allow the use of lambda-case syntax.
-
-The :extension:`LambdaCase` extension enables expressions of the form ::
-
-      \case { p1 -> e1; ...; pN -> eN }
-
-which is equivalent to ::
-
-      \freshName -> case freshName of { p1 -> e1; ...; pN -> eN }
-
-Note that ``\case`` starts a layout, so you can write ::
-
-      \case
-        p1 -> e1
-        ...
-        pN -> eN
-
-.. _empty-case:
-
-Empty case alternatives
------------------------
-
-.. extension:: EmptyCase
-    :shortdesc: Allow empty case alternatives.
-
-    :since: 7.8.1
-
-    Allow empty case expressions.
-
-The :extension:`EmptyCase` extension enables case expressions, or lambda-case
-expressions, that have no alternatives, thus: ::
-
-    case e of { }   -- No alternatives
-
-or ::
-
-    \case { }       -- -XLambdaCase is also required
-
-This can be useful when you know that the expression being scrutinised
-has no non-bottom values. For example:
-
-::
-
-      data Void
-      f :: Void -> Int
-      f x = case x of { }
-
-With dependently-typed features it is more useful (see :ghc-ticket:`2431`). For
-example, consider these two candidate definitions of ``absurd``:
-
-::
-
-    data a :~: b where
-      Refl :: a :~: a
-
-    absurd :: True :~: False -> a
-    absurd x = error "absurd"    -- (A)
-    absurd x = case x of {}      -- (B)
-
-We much prefer (B). Why? Because GHC can figure out that
-``(True :~: False)`` is an empty type. So (B) has no partiality and GHC
-is able to compile with :ghc-flag:`-Wincomplete-patterns` and
-:ghc-flag:`-Werror`. On the other hand (A) looks dangerous, and GHC doesn't
-check to make sure that, in fact, the function can never get called.
-
-.. _multi-way-if:
-
-Multi-way if-expressions
-------------------------
-
-.. extension:: MultiWayIf
-    :shortdesc: Enable multi-way if-expressions.
-
-    :since: 7.6.1
-
-    Allow the use of multi-way-``if`` syntax.
-
-With :extension:`MultiWayIf` extension GHC accepts conditional expressions with
-multiple branches: ::
-
-      if | guard1 -> expr1
-         | ...
-         | guardN -> exprN
-
-which is roughly equivalent to ::
-
-      case () of
-        _ | guard1 -> expr1
-        ...
-        _ | guardN -> exprN
-
-Multi-way if expressions introduce a new layout context. So the example
-above is equivalent to: ::
-
-      if { | guard1 -> expr1
-         ; | ...
-         ; | guardN -> exprN
-         }
-
-The following behaves as expected: ::
-
-      if | guard1 -> if | guard2 -> expr2
-                        | guard3 -> expr3
-         | guard4 -> expr4
-
-because layout translates it as ::
-
-      if { | guard1 -> if { | guard2 -> expr2
-                          ; | guard3 -> expr3
-                          }
-         ; | guard4 -> expr4
-         }
-
-Layout with multi-way if works in the same way as other layout contexts,
-except that the semi-colons between guards in a multi-way if are
-optional. So it is not necessary to line up all the guards at the same
-column; this is consistent with the way guards work in function
-definitions and case expressions.
-
-.. _local-fixity-declarations:
-
-Local Fixity Declarations
--------------------------
-
-A careful reading of the Haskell 98 Report reveals that fixity
-declarations (``infix``, ``infixl``, and ``infixr``) are permitted to
-appear inside local bindings such those introduced by ``let`` and
-``where``. However, the Haskell Report does not specify the semantics of
-such bindings very precisely.
-
-In GHC, a fixity declaration may accompany a local binding: ::
-
-    let f = ...
-        infixr 3 `f`
-    in
-        ...
-
-and the fixity declaration applies wherever the binding is in scope. For
-example, in a ``let``, it applies in the right-hand sides of other
-``let``-bindings and the body of the ``let``\ C. Or, in recursive ``do``
-expressions (:ref:`recursive-do-notation`), the local fixity
-declarations of a ``let`` statement scope over other statements in the
-group, just as the bound name does.
-
-Moreover, a local fixity declaration *must* accompany a local binding
-of that name: it is not possible to revise the fixity of name bound
-elsewhere, as in ::
-
-    let infixr 9 $ in ...
-
-Because local fixity declarations are technically Haskell 98, no extension is
-necessary to enable them.
-
-.. _package-imports:
-
-Import and export extensions
-----------------------------
-
-Hiding things the imported module doesn't export
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-Technically in Haskell 2010 this is illegal: ::
-
-    module A( f ) where
-      f = True
-
-    module B where
-      import A hiding( g )  -- A does not export g
-      g = f
-
-The ``import A hiding( g )`` in module ``B`` is technically an error
-(`Haskell Report,
-5.3.1 <http://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/haskell2010/haskellch5.html#x11-1020005.3.1>`__)
-because ``A`` does not export ``g``. However GHC allows it, in the
-interests of supporting backward compatibility; for example, a newer
-version of ``A`` might export ``g``, and you want ``B`` to work in
-either case.
-
-The warning :ghc-flag:`-Wdodgy-imports`, which is off by default but included
-with :ghc-flag:`-W`, warns if you hide something that the imported module does
-not export.
-
-.. _package-qualified-imports:
-
-Package-qualified imports
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-.. extension:: PackageImports
-    :shortdesc: Enable package-qualified imports.
-
-    :since: 6.10.1
-
-    Allow the use of package-qualified ``import`` syntax.
-
-With the :extension:`PackageImports` extension, GHC allows import declarations to be
-qualified by the package name that the module is intended to be imported
-from. For example: ::
-
-    import "network" Network.Socket
-
-would import the module ``Network.Socket`` from the package ``network``
-(any version). This may be used to disambiguate an import when the same
-module is available from multiple packages, or is present in both the
-current package being built and an external package.
-
-The special package name ``this`` can be used to refer to the current
-package being built.
-
-.. note::
-   You probably don't need to use this feature, it was added mainly so that we
-   can build backwards-compatible versions of packages when APIs change. It can
-   lead to fragile dependencies in the common case: modules occasionally move
-   from one package to another, rendering any package-qualified imports broken.
-   See also :ref:`package-thinning-and-renaming` for an alternative way of
-   disambiguating between module names.
-
-.. _safe-imports-ext:
-
-Safe imports
-~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-.. extension:: Safe
-    :shortdesc: Enable the :ref:`Safe Haskell <safe-haskell>` Safe mode.
-    :noindex:
-
-    :since: 7.2.1
-
-    Declare the Safe Haskell state of the current module.
-
-.. extension:: Trustworthy
-    :shortdesc: Enable the :ref:`Safe Haskell <safe-haskell>` Trustworthy mode.
-    :noindex:
-
-    :since: 7.2.1
-
-    Declare the Safe Haskell state of the current module.
-
-.. extension:: Unsafe
-    :shortdesc: Enable Safe Haskell Unsafe mode.
-    :noindex:
-
-    :since: 7.4.1
-
-    Declare the Safe Haskell state of the current module.
-
-With the :extension:`Safe`, :extension:`Trustworthy` and :extension:`Unsafe`
-language flags, GHC extends the import declaration syntax to take an optional
-``safe`` keyword after the ``import`` keyword. This feature is part of the Safe
-Haskell GHC extension. For example: ::
-
-    import safe qualified Network.Socket as NS
-
-would import the module ``Network.Socket`` with compilation only
-succeeding if ``Network.Socket`` can be safely imported. For a description of
-when a import is considered safe see :ref:`safe-haskell`.
-
-.. _explicit-namespaces:
-
-Explicit namespaces in import/export
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-.. extension:: ExplicitNamespaces
-    :shortdesc: Enable using the keyword ``type`` to specify the namespace of
-        entries in imports and exports (:ref:`explicit-namespaces`).
-        Implied by :extension:`TypeOperators` and :extension:`TypeFamilies`.
-
-    :since: 7.6.1
-
-    Enable use of explicit namespaces in module export lists.
-
-In an import or export list, such as ::
-
-      module M( f, (++) ) where ...
-        import N( f, (++) )
-        ...
-
-the entities ``f`` and ``(++)`` are *values*. However, with type
-operators (:ref:`type-operators`) it becomes possible to declare
-``(++)`` as a *type constructor*. In that case, how would you export or
-import it?
-
-The :extension:`ExplicitNamespaces` extension allows you to prefix the name of
-a type constructor in an import or export list with "``type``" to
-disambiguate this case, thus: ::
-
-      module M( f, type (++) ) where ...
-        import N( f, type (++) )
-        ...
-      module N( f, type (++) ) where
-        data family a ++ b = L a | R b
-
-The extension :extension:`ExplicitNamespaces` is implied by
-:extension:`TypeOperators` and (for some reason) by :extension:`TypeFamilies`.
-
-In addition, with :extension:`PatternSynonyms` you can prefix the name of a
-data constructor in an import or export list with the keyword
-``pattern``, to allow the import or export of a data constructor without
-its parent type constructor (see :ref:`patsyn-impexp`).
-
-.. _importqualifiedpost:
-
-Writing qualified in postpositive position
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-.. extension:: ImportQualifiedPost
-    :shortdesc: ``ImportQualifiedPost`` allows the syntax ``import M qualified``
-
-    :since: 8.10.1
-
-    ``ImportQualifiedPost`` allows the syntax ``import M qualified``, that is, to annotate a module as qualified by writing ``qualified`` after the module name.
-
-To import a qualified module usually you must specify ``qualified`` in prepositive position : ``import qualified M``. This often leads to a "hanging indent" (which is automatically inserted by some autoformatters and common in many code bases. For example:
-
-.. code-block::  none
-
- import qualified A
- import           B
- import           C
-
-The ``ImportQualifiedPost`` extension allows ``qualified`` to appear in postpositive position : ``import M qualified``. With this extension enabled, one can write:
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-   import A qualified
-   import B
-   import C
-
-It is an error if ``qualified`` appears in both pre and postpositive positions.
-
-The warning ``-Wprepositive-qualified-syntax`` (off by default) reports on any occurrences of imports annotated ``qualified`` using prepositive syntax.
-
-.. _block-arguments:
-
-More liberal syntax for function arguments
-------------------------------------------
-
-.. extension:: BlockArguments
-    :shortdesc: Allow ``do`` blocks and other constructs as function arguments.
-
-    :since: 8.6.1
-
-    Allow ``do`` expressions, lambda expressions, etc. to be directly used as
-    a function argument.
-
-In Haskell 2010, certain kinds of expressions can be used without parentheses
-as an argument to an operator, but not as an argument to a function.
-They include ``do``, lambda, ``if``, ``case``, and ``let``
-expressions. Some GHC extensions also define language constructs of this type:
-``mdo`` (:ref:`recursive-do-notation`), ``\case`` (:ref:`lambda-case`), and
-``proc`` (:ref:`arrow-notation`).
-
-The :extension:`BlockArguments` extension allows these constructs to be directly
-used as a function argument. For example::
-
-    when (x > 0) do
-      print x
-      exitFailure
-
-will be parsed as::
-
-    when (x > 0) (do
-      print x
-      exitFailure)
-
-and
-
-::
-
-    withForeignPtr fptr \ptr -> c_memcpy buf ptr size
-
-will be parsed as::
-
-    withForeignPtr fptr (\ptr -> c_memcpy buf ptr size)
-
-Changes to the grammar
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-The Haskell report `defines
-<https://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/haskell2010/haskellch3.html#x8-220003>`_
-the ``lexp`` nonterminal thus (``*`` indicates a rule of interest)
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-    lexp  →  \ apat1 … apatn -> exp            (lambda abstraction, n ≥ 1)  *
-          |  let decls in exp                  (let expression)             *
-          |  if exp [;] then exp [;] else exp  (conditional)                *
-          |  case exp of { alts }              (case expression)            *
-          |  do { stmts }                      (do expression)              *
-          |  fexp
-
-    fexp  →  [fexp] aexp                       (function application)
-
-    aexp  →  qvar                              (variable)
-          |  gcon                              (general constructor)
-          |  literal
-          |  ( exp )                           (parenthesized expression)
-          |  qcon { fbind1 … fbindn }          (labeled construction)
-          |  aexp { fbind1 … fbindn }          (labelled update)
-          |  …
-
-The :extension:`BlockArguments` extension moves these production rules under
-``aexp``
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-    lexp  →  fexp
-
-    fexp  →  [fexp] aexp                       (function application)
-
-    aexp  →  qvar                              (variable)
-          |  gcon                              (general constructor)
-          |  literal
-          |  ( exp )                           (parenthesized expression)
-          |  qcon { fbind1 … fbindn }          (labeled construction)
-          |  aexp { fbind1 … fbindn }          (labelled update)
-          |  \ apat1 … apatn -> exp            (lambda abstraction, n ≥ 1)  *
-          |  let decls in exp                  (let expression)             *
-          |  if exp [;] then exp [;] else exp  (conditional)                *
-          |  case exp of { alts }              (case expression)            *
-          |  do { stmts }                      (do expression)              *
-          |  …
-
-Now the ``lexp`` nonterminal is redundant and can be dropped from the grammar.
-
-Note that this change relies on an existing meta-rule to resolve ambiguities:
-
-    The grammar is ambiguous regarding the extent of lambda abstractions, let
-    expressions, and conditionals. The ambiguity is resolved by the meta-rule
-    that each of these constructs extends as far to the right as possible.
-
-For example, ``f \a -> a b`` will be parsed as ``f (\a -> a b)``, not as ``f
-(\a -> a) b``.
-
-.. _syntax-stolen:
-
-Summary of stolen syntax
-------------------------
-
-Turning on an option that enables special syntax *might* cause working
-Haskell 98 code to fail to compile, perhaps because it uses a variable
-name which has become a reserved word. This section lists the syntax
-that is "stolen" by language extensions. We use notation and nonterminal
-names from the Haskell 98 lexical syntax (see the Haskell 98 Report). We
-only list syntax changes here that might affect existing working
-programs (i.e. "stolen" syntax). Many of these extensions will also
-enable new context-free syntax, but in all cases programs written to use
-the new syntax would not be compilable without the option enabled.
-
-There are two classes of special syntax:
-
--  New reserved words and symbols: character sequences which are no
-   longer available for use as identifiers in the program.
-
--  Other special syntax: sequences of characters that have a different
-   meaning when this particular option is turned on.
-
-The following syntax is stolen:
-
-``forall``
-    .. index::
-       single: forall
-
-    Stolen (in types) by default (see :ref:`infelicities-lexical`). ``forall`` is
-    a reserved keyword and never a type variable, in accordance with `GHC Proposal #43
-    <https://github.com/ghc-proposals/ghc-proposals/blob/master/proposals/0043-forall-keyword.rst>`__.
-
-
-``mdo``
-    .. index::
-       single: mdo
-
-    Stolen by: :extension:`RecursiveDo`
-
-``foreign``
-    .. index::
-       single: foreign
-
-    Stolen by: :extension:`ForeignFunctionInterface`
-
-``rec``, ``proc``, ``-<``, ``>-``, ``-<<``, ``>>-``, ``(|``, ``|)``
-    .. index::
-       single: proc
-
-    Stolen by: :extension:`Arrows`
-
-``?varid``
-    .. index::
-       single: implicit parameters
-
-    Stolen by: :extension:`ImplicitParams`
-
-``[|``, ``[e|``, ``[p|``, ``[d|``, ``[t|``, ``[||``, ``[e||``
-    .. index::
-       single: Quasi-quotes
-
-    Stolen by: :extension:`QuasiQuotes`. Moreover, this introduces an ambiguity
-    with list comprehension syntax. See the
-    :ref:`discussion on quasi-quoting <quasi-quotes-list-comprehension-ambiguity>`
-    for details.
-
-``$(``, ``$$(``, ``$varid``, ``$$varid``
-    .. index::
-       single: Template Haskell
-
-    Stolen by: :extension:`TemplateHaskell`
-
-``[varid|``
-    .. index::
-       single: quasi-quotation
-
-    Stolen by: :extension:`QuasiQuotes`
-
-⟨varid⟩, ``#``\ ⟨char⟩, ``#``, ⟨string⟩, ``#``, ⟨integer⟩, ``#``, ⟨float⟩, ``#``, ⟨float⟩, ``##``
-    Stolen by: :extension:`MagicHash`
-
-``(#``, ``#)``
-    Stolen by: :extension:`UnboxedTuples`
-
-⟨varid⟩, ``!``, ⟨varid⟩
-    Stolen by: :extension:`BangPatterns`
-
-``pattern``
-    Stolen by: :extension:`PatternSynonyms`
-
-``static``
-    Stolen by: :extension:`StaticPointers`
-
-.. _data-type-extensions:
-
-Extensions to data types and type synonyms
-==========================================
-
-.. _nullary-types:
-
-Data types with no constructors
--------------------------------
-
-.. extension:: EmptyDataDecls
-    :shortdesc: Allow definition of empty ``data`` types.
-
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Allow definition of empty ``data`` types.
-
-With the :extension:`EmptyDataDecls` extension, GHC lets you declare a
-data type with no constructors.
-
-You only need to enable this extension if the language you're using
-is Haskell 98, in which a data type must have at least one constructor.
-Haskell 2010 relaxed this rule to allow data types with no constructors,
-and thus :extension:`EmptyDataDecls` is enabled by default when the
-language is Haskell 2010.
-
-For example: ::
-
-      data S      -- S :: Type
-      data T a    -- T :: Type -> Type
-
-Syntactically, the declaration lacks the "= constrs" part. The type can be
-parameterised over types of any kind, but if the kind is not ``Type`` then an
-explicit kind annotation must be used (see :ref:`kinding`).
-
-Such data types have only one value, namely bottom. Nevertheless, they
-can be useful when defining "phantom types".
-
-In conjunction with the :extension:`EmptyDataDeriving` extension, empty data
-declarations can also derive instances of standard type classes
-(see :ref:`empty-data-deriving`).
-
-.. _datatype-contexts:
-
-Data type contexts
-------------------
-
-.. extension:: DatatypeContexts
-    :shortdesc: Allow contexts on ``data`` types.
-
-    :since: 7.0.1
-
-    Allow contexts on ``data`` types.
-
-Haskell allows datatypes to be given contexts, e.g. ::
-
-    data Eq a => Set a = NilSet | ConsSet a (Set a)
-
-give constructors with types: ::
-
-    NilSet :: Set a
-    ConsSet :: Eq a => a -> Set a -> Set a
-
-This is widely considered a misfeature, and is going to be removed from
-the language. In GHC, it is controlled by the deprecated extension
-``DatatypeContexts``.
-
-.. _infix-tycons:
-
-Infix type constructors, classes, and type variables
-----------------------------------------------------
-
-GHC allows type constructors, classes, and type variables to be
-operators, and to be written infix, very much like expressions. More
-specifically:
-
--  A type constructor or class can be any non-reserved operator.
-   Symbols used in types are always like capitalized identifiers; they
-   are never variables. Note that this is different from the lexical
-   syntax of data constructors, which are required to begin with a
-   ``:``.
-
--  Data type and type-synonym declarations can be written infix,
-   parenthesised if you want further arguments. E.g. ::
-
-         data a :*: b = Foo a b
-         type a :+: b = Either a b
-         class a :=: b where ...
-
-         data (a :**: b) x = Baz a b x
-         type (a :++: b) y = Either (a,b) y
-
--  Types, and class constraints, can be written infix. For example ::
-
-         x :: Int :*: Bool
-         f :: (a :=: b) => a -> b
-
--  Back-quotes work as for expressions, both for type constructors and
-   type variables; e.g. ``Int `Either` Bool``, or ``Int `a` Bool``.
-   Similarly, parentheses work the same; e.g. ``(:*:) Int Bool``.
-
--  Fixities may be declared for type constructors, or classes, just as
-   for data constructors. However, one cannot distinguish between the
-   two in a fixity declaration; a fixity declaration sets the fixity for
-   a data constructor and the corresponding type constructor. For
-   example: ::
-
-         infixl 7 T, :*:
-
-   sets the fixity for both type constructor ``T`` and data constructor
-   ``T``, and similarly for ``:*:``. ``Int `a` Bool``.
-
--  The function arrow ``->`` is ``infixr`` with fixity -1.
-
-.. _type-operators:
-
-Type operators
---------------
-
-.. extension:: TypeOperators
-    :shortdesc: Enable type operators.
-        Implies :extension:`ExplicitNamespaces`.
-
-    :implies: :extension:`ExplicitNamespaces`
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Allow the use and definition of types with operator names.
-
-In types, an operator symbol like ``(+)`` is normally treated as a type
-*variable*, just like ``a``. Thus in Haskell 98 you can say
-
-::
-
-    type T (+) = ((+), (+))
-    -- Just like: type T a = (a,a)
-
-    f :: T Int -> Int
-    f (x,y)= x
-
-As you can see, using operators in this way is not very useful, and
-Haskell 98 does not even allow you to write them infix.
-
-The language :extension:`TypeOperators` changes this behaviour:
-
--  Operator symbols become type *constructors* rather than type
-   *variables*.
-
--  Operator symbols in types can be written infix, both in definitions
-   and uses. For example: ::
-
-       data a + b = Plus a b
-       type Foo = Int + Bool
-
--  There is now some potential ambiguity in import and export lists; for
-   example if you write ``import M( (+) )`` do you mean the *function*
-   ``(+)`` or the *type constructor* ``(+)``? The default is the former,
-   but with :extension:`ExplicitNamespaces` (which is implied by
-   :extension:`TypeOperators`) GHC allows you to specify the latter by
-   preceding it with the keyword ``type``, thus: ::
-
-       import M( type (+) )
-
-   See :ref:`explicit-namespaces`.
-
--  The fixity of a type operator may be set using the usual fixity
-   declarations but, as in :ref:`infix-tycons`, the function and type
-   constructor share a single fixity.
-
-.. _type-synonyms:
-
-Liberalised type synonyms
--------------------------
-
-.. extension:: LiberalTypeSynonyms
-    :shortdesc: Enable liberalised type synonyms.
-
-    :implies: :extension:`ExplicitForAll`
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Relax many of the Haskell 98 rules on type synonym definitions.
-
-Type synonyms are like macros at the type level, but Haskell 98 imposes
-many rules on individual synonym declarations. With the
-:extension:`LiberalTypeSynonyms` extension, GHC does validity checking on types
-*only after expanding type synonyms*. That means that GHC can be very
-much more liberal about type synonyms than Haskell 98.
-
--  You can write a ``forall`` (including overloading) in a type synonym,
-   thus: ::
-
-         type Discard a = forall b. Show b => a -> b -> (a, String)
-
-         f :: Discard a
-         f x y = (x, show y)
-
-         g :: Discard Int -> (Int,String)    -- A rank-2 type
-         g f = f 3 True
-
--  If you also use :extension:`UnboxedTuples`, you can write an unboxed tuple
-   in a type synonym: ::
-
-         type Pr = (# Int, Int #)
-
-         h :: Int -> Pr
-         h x = (# x, x #)
-
--  You can apply a type synonym to a forall type: ::
-
-         type Foo a = a -> a -> Bool
-
-         f :: Foo (forall b. b->b)
-
-   After expanding the synonym, ``f`` has the legal (in GHC) type: ::
-
-         f :: (forall b. b->b) -> (forall b. b->b) -> Bool
-
--  You can apply a type synonym to a partially applied type synonym: ::
-
-         type Generic i o = forall x. i x -> o x
-         type Id x = x
-
-         foo :: Generic Id []
-
-   After expanding the synonym, ``foo`` has the legal (in GHC) type: ::
-
-         foo :: forall x. x -> [x]
-
-GHC currently does kind checking before expanding synonyms (though even
-that could be changed).
-
-After expanding type synonyms, GHC does validity checking on types,
-looking for the following malformedness which isn't detected simply by
-kind checking:
-
--  Type constructor applied to a type involving for-alls (if
-   :extension:`ImpredicativeTypes` is off)
-
--  Partially-applied type synonym.
-
-So, for example, this will be rejected: ::
-
-      type Pr = forall a. a
-
-      h :: [Pr]
-      h = ...
-
-because GHC does not allow type constructors applied to for-all types.
-
-.. _existential-quantification:
-
-Existentially quantified data constructors
-------------------------------------------
-
-.. extension:: ExistentialQuantification
-    :shortdesc: Enable liberalised type synonyms.
-
-    :implies: :extension:`ExplicitForAll`
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Allow existentially quantified type variables in types.
-
-The idea of using existential quantification in data type declarations
-was suggested by Perry, and implemented in Hope+ (Nigel Perry, *The
-Implementation of Practical Functional Programming Languages*, PhD
-Thesis, University of London, 1991). It was later formalised by Laufer
-and Odersky (*Polymorphic type inference and abstract data types*,
-TOPLAS, 16(5), pp. 1411-1430, 1994). It's been in Lennart Augustsson's
-``hbc`` Haskell compiler for several years, and proved very useful.
-Here's the idea. Consider the declaration: ::
-
-      data Foo = forall a. MkFoo a (a -> Bool)
-               | Nil
-
-The data type ``Foo`` has two constructors with types: ::
-
-      MkFoo :: forall a. a -> (a -> Bool) -> Foo
-      Nil   :: Foo
-
-Notice that the type variable ``a`` in the type of ``MkFoo`` does not
-appear in the data type itself, which is plain ``Foo``. For example, the
-following expression is fine: ::
-
-      [MkFoo 3 even, MkFoo 'c' isUpper] :: [Foo]
-
-Here, ``(MkFoo 3 even)`` packages an integer with a function ``even``
-that maps an integer to ``Bool``; and ``MkFoo 'c'
-isUpper`` packages a character with a compatible function. These two
-things are each of type ``Foo`` and can be put in a list.
-
-What can we do with a value of type ``Foo``? In particular, what
-happens when we pattern-match on ``MkFoo``? ::
-
-      f (MkFoo val fn) = ???
-
-Since all we know about ``val`` and ``fn`` is that they are compatible,
-the only (useful) thing we can do with them is to apply ``fn`` to
-``val`` to get a boolean. For example: ::
-
-      f :: Foo -> Bool
-      f (MkFoo val fn) = fn val
-
-What this allows us to do is to package heterogeneous values together
-with a bunch of functions that manipulate them, and then treat that
-collection of packages in a uniform manner. You can express quite a bit
-of object-oriented-like programming this way.
-
-.. _existential:
-
-Why existential?
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-What has this to do with *existential* quantification? Simply that
-``MkFoo`` has the (nearly) isomorphic type ::
-
-      MkFoo :: (exists a . (a, a -> Bool)) -> Foo
-
-But Haskell programmers can safely think of the ordinary *universally*
-quantified type given above, thereby avoiding adding a new existential
-quantification construct.
-
-.. _existential-with-context:
-
-Existentials and type classes
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-An easy extension is to allow arbitrary contexts before the constructor.
-For example: ::
-
-    data Baz = forall a. Eq a => Baz1 a a
-             | forall b. Show b => Baz2 b (b -> b)
-
-The two constructors have the types you'd expect: ::
-
-    Baz1 :: forall a. Eq a => a -> a -> Baz
-    Baz2 :: forall b. Show b => b -> (b -> b) -> Baz
-
-But when pattern matching on ``Baz1`` the matched values can be compared
-for equality, and when pattern matching on ``Baz2`` the first matched
-value can be converted to a string (as well as applying the function to
-it). So this program is legal: ::
-
-      f :: Baz -> String
-      f (Baz1 p q) | p == q    = "Yes"
-                   | otherwise = "No"
-      f (Baz2 v fn)            = show (fn v)
-
-Operationally, in a dictionary-passing implementation, the constructors
-``Baz1`` and ``Baz2`` must store the dictionaries for ``Eq`` and
-``Show`` respectively, and extract it on pattern matching.
-
-.. _existential-records:
-
-Record Constructors
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-GHC allows existentials to be used with records syntax as well. For
-example: ::
-
-    data Counter a = forall self. NewCounter
-        { _this    :: self
-        , _inc     :: self -> self
-        , _display :: self -> IO ()
-        , tag      :: a
-        }
-
-Here ``tag`` is a public field, with a well-typed selector function
-``tag :: Counter a -> a``. The ``self`` type is hidden from the outside;
-any attempt to apply ``_this``, ``_inc`` or ``_display`` as functions
-will raise a compile-time error. In other words, *GHC defines a record
-selector function only for fields whose type does not mention the
-existentially-quantified variables*. (This example used an underscore in
-the fields for which record selectors will not be defined, but that is
-only programming style; GHC ignores them.)
-
-To make use of these hidden fields, we need to create some helper
-functions: ::
-
-    inc :: Counter a -> Counter a
-    inc (NewCounter x i d t) = NewCounter
-        { _this = i x, _inc = i, _display = d, tag = t }
-
-    display :: Counter a -> IO ()
-    display NewCounter{ _this = x, _display = d } = d x
-
-Now we can define counters with different underlying implementations: ::
-
-    counterA :: Counter String
-    counterA = NewCounter
-        { _this = 0, _inc = (1+), _display = print, tag = "A" }
-
-    counterB :: Counter String
-    counterB = NewCounter
-        { _this = "", _inc = ('#':), _display = putStrLn, tag = "B" }
-
-    main = do
-        display (inc counterA)         -- prints "1"
-        display (inc (inc counterB))   -- prints "##"
-
-Record update syntax is supported for existentials (and GADTs): ::
-
-    setTag :: Counter a -> a -> Counter a
-    setTag obj t = obj{ tag = t }
-
-The rule for record update is this:
-
-    the types of the updated fields may mention only the universally-quantified
-    type variables of the data constructor. For GADTs, the field may mention
-    only types that appear as a simple type-variable argument in the
-    constructor's result type.
-
-For example: ::
-
-    data T a b where { T1 { f1::a, f2::b, f3::(b,c) } :: T a b } -- c is existential
-    upd1 t x = t { f1=x }   -- OK:   upd1 :: T a b -> a' -> T a' b
-    upd2 t x = t { f3=x }   -- BAD   (f3's type mentions c, which is
-                            --        existentially quantified)
-
-    data G a b where { G1 { g1::a, g2::c } :: G a [c] }
-    upd3 g x = g { g1=x }   -- OK:   upd3 :: G a b -> c -> G c b
-    upd4 g x = g { g2=x }   -- BAD (f2's type mentions c, which is not a simple
-                            --      type-variable argument in G1's result type)
-
-Restrictions
-~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-There are several restrictions on the ways in which existentially-quantified
-constructors can be used.
-
--  When pattern matching, each pattern match introduces a new, distinct,
-   type for each existential type variable. These types cannot be
-   unified with any other type, nor can they escape from the scope of
-   the pattern match. For example, these fragments are incorrect: ::
-
-       f1 (MkFoo a f) = a
-
-   Here, the type bound by ``MkFoo`` "escapes", because ``a`` is the
-   result of ``f1``. One way to see why this is wrong is to ask what
-   type ``f1`` has: ::
-
-         f1 :: Foo -> a             -- Weird!
-
-   What is this "``a``" in the result type? Clearly we don't mean this: ::
-
-         f1 :: forall a. Foo -> a   -- Wrong!
-
-   The original program is just plain wrong. Here's another sort of
-   error ::
-
-         f2 (Baz1 a b) (Baz1 p q) = a==q
-
-   It's ok to say ``a==b`` or ``p==q``, but ``a==q`` is wrong because it
-   equates the two distinct types arising from the two ``Baz1``
-   constructors.
-
--  You can't pattern-match on an existentially quantified constructor in
-   a ``let`` or ``where`` group of bindings. So this is illegal: ::
-
-         f3 x = a==b where { Baz1 a b = x }
-
-   Instead, use a ``case`` expression: ::
-
-         f3 x = case x of Baz1 a b -> a==b
-
-   In general, you can only pattern-match on an existentially-quantified
-   constructor in a ``case`` expression or in the patterns of a function
-   definition. The reason for this restriction is really an
-   implementation one. Type-checking binding groups is already a
-   nightmare without existentials complicating the picture. Also an
-   existential pattern binding at the top level of a module doesn't make
-   sense, because it's not clear how to prevent the
-   existentially-quantified type "escaping". So for now, there's a
-   simple-to-state restriction. We'll see how annoying it is.
-
--  You can't use existential quantification for ``newtype``
-   declarations. So this is illegal: ::
-
-         newtype T = forall a. Ord a => MkT a
-
-   Reason: a value of type ``T`` must be represented as a pair of a
-   dictionary for ``Ord t`` and a value of type ``t``. That contradicts
-   the idea that ``newtype`` should have no concrete representation. You
-   can get just the same efficiency and effect by using ``data`` instead
-   of ``newtype``. If there is no overloading involved, then there is
-   more of a case for allowing an existentially-quantified ``newtype``,
-   because the ``data`` version does carry an implementation cost, but
-   single-field existentially quantified constructors aren't much use.
-   So the simple restriction (no existential stuff on ``newtype``)
-   stands, unless there are convincing reasons to change it.
-
--  You can't use ``deriving`` to define instances of a data type with
-   existentially quantified data constructors. Reason: in most cases it
-   would not make sense. For example:; ::
-
-       data T = forall a. MkT [a] deriving( Eq )
-
-   To derive ``Eq`` in the standard way we would need to have equality
-   between the single component of two ``MkT`` constructors: ::
-
-       instance Eq T where
-         (MkT a) == (MkT b) = ???
-
-   But ``a`` and ``b`` have distinct types, and so can't be compared.
-   It's just about possible to imagine examples in which the derived
-   instance would make sense, but it seems altogether simpler simply to
-   prohibit such declarations. Define your own instances!
-
-.. _gadt-style:
-
-Declaring data types with explicit constructor signatures
----------------------------------------------------------
-
-.. extension:: GADTSyntax
-    :shortdesc: Enable generalised algebraic data type syntax.
-
-    :since: 7.2.1
-
-    Allow the use of GADT syntax in data type definitions (but not GADTs
-    themselves; for this see :extension:`GADTs`)
-
-When the ``GADTSyntax`` extension is enabled, GHC allows you to declare
-an algebraic data type by giving the type signatures of constructors
-explicitly. For example: ::
-
-      data Maybe a where
-          Nothing :: Maybe a
-          Just    :: a -> Maybe a
-
-The form is called a "GADT-style declaration" because Generalised
-Algebraic Data Types, described in :ref:`gadt`, can only be declared
-using this form.
-
-Notice that GADT-style syntax generalises existential types
-(:ref:`existential-quantification`). For example, these two declarations
-are equivalent: ::
-
-      data Foo = forall a. MkFoo a (a -> Bool)
-      data Foo' where { MKFoo :: a -> (a->Bool) -> Foo' }
-
-Any data type that can be declared in standard Haskell 98 syntax can
-also be declared using GADT-style syntax. The choice is largely
-stylistic, but GADT-style declarations differ in one important respect:
-they treat class constraints on the data constructors differently.
-Specifically, if the constructor is given a type-class context, that
-context is made available by pattern matching. For example: ::
-
-      data Set a where
-        MkSet :: Eq a => [a] -> Set a
-
-      makeSet :: Eq a => [a] -> Set a
-      makeSet xs = MkSet (nub xs)
-
-      insert :: a -> Set a -> Set a
-      insert a (MkSet as) | a `elem` as = MkSet as
-                          | otherwise   = MkSet (a:as)
-
-A use of ``MkSet`` as a constructor (e.g. in the definition of
-``makeSet``) gives rise to a ``(Eq a)`` constraint, as you would expect.
-The new feature is that pattern-matching on ``MkSet`` (as in the
-definition of ``insert``) makes *available* an ``(Eq a)`` context. In
-implementation terms, the ``MkSet`` constructor has a hidden field that
-stores the ``(Eq a)`` dictionary that is passed to ``MkSet``; so when
-pattern-matching that dictionary becomes available for the right-hand
-side of the match. In the example, the equality dictionary is used to
-satisfy the equality constraint generated by the call to ``elem``, so
-that the type of ``insert`` itself has no ``Eq`` constraint.
-
-For example, one possible application is to reify dictionaries: ::
-
-       data NumInst a where
-         MkNumInst :: Num a => NumInst a
-
-       intInst :: NumInst Int
-       intInst = MkNumInst
-
-       plus :: NumInst a -> a -> a -> a
-       plus MkNumInst p q = p + q
-
-Here, a value of type ``NumInst a`` is equivalent to an explicit
-``(Num a)`` dictionary.
-
-All this applies to constructors declared using the syntax of
-:ref:`existential-with-context`. For example, the ``NumInst`` data type
-above could equivalently be declared like this: ::
-
-       data NumInst a
-          = Num a => MkNumInst (NumInst a)
-
-Notice that, unlike the situation when declaring an existential, there
-is no ``forall``, because the ``Num`` constrains the data type's
-universally quantified type variable ``a``. A constructor may have both
-universal and existential type variables: for example, the following two
-declarations are equivalent: ::
-
-       data T1 a
-        = forall b. (Num a, Eq b) => MkT1 a b
-       data T2 a where
-        MkT2 :: (Num a, Eq b) => a -> b -> T2 a
-
-All this behaviour contrasts with Haskell 98's peculiar treatment of
-contexts on a data type declaration (Section 4.2.1 of the Haskell 98
-Report). In Haskell 98 the definition ::
-
-      data Eq a => Set' a = MkSet' [a]
-
-gives ``MkSet'`` the same type as ``MkSet`` above. But instead of
-*making available* an ``(Eq a)`` constraint, pattern-matching on
-``MkSet'`` *requires* an ``(Eq a)`` constraint! GHC faithfully
-implements this behaviour, odd though it is. But for GADT-style
-declarations, GHC's behaviour is much more useful, as well as much more
-intuitive.
-
-The rest of this section gives further details about GADT-style data
-type declarations.
-
--  The result type of each data constructor must begin with the type
-   constructor being defined. If the result type of all constructors has
-   the form ``T a1 ... an``, where ``a1 ... an`` are distinct type
-   variables, then the data type is *ordinary*; otherwise is a
-   *generalised* data type (:ref:`gadt`).
-
--  As with other type signatures, you can give a single signature for
-   several data constructors. In this example we give a single signature
-   for ``T1`` and ``T2``: ::
-
-         data T a where
-           T1,T2 :: a -> T a
-           T3 :: T a
-
--  The type signature of each constructor is independent, and is
-   implicitly universally quantified as usual. In particular, the type
-   variable(s) in the "``data T a where``" header have no scope, and
-   different constructors may have different universally-quantified type
-   variables: ::
-
-         data T a where        -- The 'a' has no scope
-           T1,T2 :: b -> T b   -- Means forall b. b -> T b
-           T3 :: T a           -- Means forall a. T a
-
--  A constructor signature may mention type class constraints, which can
-   differ for different constructors. For example, this is fine: ::
-
-         data T a where
-           T1 :: Eq b => b -> b -> T b
-           T2 :: (Show c, Ix c) => c -> [c] -> T c
-
-   When pattern matching, these constraints are made available to
-   discharge constraints in the body of the match. For example: ::
-
-         f :: T a -> String
-         f (T1 x y) | x==y      = "yes"
-                    | otherwise = "no"
-         f (T2 a b)             = show a
-
-   Note that ``f`` is not overloaded; the ``Eq`` constraint arising from
-   the use of ``==`` is discharged by the pattern match on ``T1`` and
-   similarly the ``Show`` constraint arising from the use of ``show``.
-
--  Unlike a Haskell-98-style data type declaration, the type variable(s)
-   in the "``data Set a where``" header have no scope. Indeed, one can
-   write a kind signature instead: ::
-
-         data Set :: Type -> Type where ...
-
-   or even a mixture of the two: ::
-
-         data Bar a :: (Type -> Type) -> Type where ...
-
-   The type variables (if given) may be explicitly kinded, so we could
-   also write the header for ``Foo`` like this: ::
-
-         data Bar a (b :: Type -> Type) where ...
-
--  You can use strictness annotations, in the obvious places in the
-   constructor type: ::
-
-         data Term a where
-             Lit    :: !Int -> Term Int
-             If     :: Term Bool -> !(Term a) -> !(Term a) -> Term a
-             Pair   :: Term a -> Term b -> Term (a,b)
-
--  You can use a ``deriving`` clause on a GADT-style data type
-   declaration. For example, these two declarations are equivalent ::
-
-         data Maybe1 a where {
-             Nothing1 :: Maybe1 a ;
-             Just1    :: a -> Maybe1 a
-           } deriving( Eq, Ord )
-
-         data Maybe2 a = Nothing2 | Just2 a
-              deriving( Eq, Ord )
-
--  The type signature may have quantified type variables that do not
-   appear in the result type: ::
-
-         data Foo where
-            MkFoo :: a -> (a->Bool) -> Foo
-            Nil   :: Foo
-
-   Here the type variable ``a`` does not appear in the result type of
-   either constructor. Although it is universally quantified in the type
-   of the constructor, such a type variable is often called
-   "existential". Indeed, the above declaration declares precisely the
-   same type as the ``data Foo`` in :ref:`existential-quantification`.
-
-   The type may contain a class context too, of course: ::
-
-         data Showable where
-           MkShowable :: Show a => a -> Showable
-
--  You can use record syntax on a GADT-style data type declaration: ::
-
-         data Person where
-             Adult :: { name :: String, children :: [Person] } -> Person
-             Child :: Show a => { name :: !String, funny :: a } -> Person
-
-   As usual, for every constructor that has a field ``f``, the type of
-   field ``f`` must be the same (modulo alpha conversion). The ``Child``
-   constructor above shows that the signature may have a context,
-   existentially-quantified variables, and strictness annotations, just
-   as in the non-record case. (NB: the "type" that follows the
-   double-colon is not really a type, because of the record syntax and
-   strictness annotations. A "type" of this form can appear only in a
-   constructor signature.)
-
--  Record updates are allowed with GADT-style declarations, only fields
-   that have the following property: the type of the field mentions no
-   existential type variables.
-
--  As in the case of existentials declared using the Haskell-98-like
-   record syntax (:ref:`existential-records`), record-selector functions
-   are generated only for those fields that have well-typed selectors.
-   Here is the example of that section, in GADT-style syntax: ::
-
-       data Counter a where
-           NewCounter :: { _this    :: self
-                         , _inc     :: self -> self
-                         , _display :: self -> IO ()
-                         , tag      :: a
-                         } -> Counter a
-
-   As before, only one selector function is generated here, that for
-   ``tag``. Nevertheless, you can still use all the field names in
-   pattern matching and record construction.
-
--  In a GADT-style data type declaration there is no obvious way to
-   specify that a data constructor should be infix, which makes a
-   difference if you derive ``Show`` for the type. (Data constructors
-   declared infix are displayed infix by the derived ``show``.) So GHC
-   implements the following design: a data constructor declared in a
-   GADT-style data type declaration is displayed infix by ``Show`` iff
-   (a) it is an operator symbol, (b) it has two arguments, (c) it has a
-   programmer-supplied fixity declaration. For example
-
-   ::
-
-          infix 6 (:--:)
-          data T a where
-            (:--:) :: Int -> Bool -> T Int
-
-.. _gadt:
-
-Generalised Algebraic Data Types (GADTs)
-----------------------------------------
-
-.. extension:: GADTs
-    :shortdesc: Enable generalised algebraic data types.
-        Implies :extension:`GADTSyntax` and :extension:`MonoLocalBinds`.
-
-    :implies: :extension:`MonoLocalBinds`, :extension:`GADTSyntax`
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Allow use of Generalised Algebraic Data Types (GADTs).
-
-Generalised Algebraic Data Types generalise ordinary algebraic data
-types by allowing constructors to have richer return types. Here is an
-example: ::
-
-      data Term a where
-          Lit    :: Int -> Term Int
-          Succ   :: Term Int -> Term Int
-          IsZero :: Term Int -> Term Bool
-          If     :: Term Bool -> Term a -> Term a -> Term a
-          Pair   :: Term a -> Term b -> Term (a,b)
-
-Notice that the return type of the constructors is not always
-``Term a``, as is the case with ordinary data types. This generality
-allows us to write a well-typed ``eval`` function for these ``Terms``: ::
-
-      eval :: Term a -> a
-      eval (Lit i)      = i
-      eval (Succ t)     = 1 + eval t
-      eval (IsZero t)   = eval t == 0
-      eval (If b e1 e2) = if eval b then eval e1 else eval e2
-      eval (Pair e1 e2) = (eval e1, eval e2)
-
-The key point about GADTs is that *pattern matching causes type
-refinement*. For example, in the right hand side of the equation ::
-
-      eval :: Term a -> a
-      eval (Lit i) =  ...
-
-the type ``a`` is refined to ``Int``. That's the whole point! A precise
-specification of the type rules is beyond what this user manual aspires
-to, but the design closely follows that described in the paper `Simple
-unification-based type inference for
-GADTs <http://research.microsoft.com/%7Esimonpj/papers/gadt/>`__, (ICFP
-2006). The general principle is this: *type refinement is only carried
-out based on user-supplied type annotations*. So if no type signature is
-supplied for ``eval``, no type refinement happens, and lots of obscure
-error messages will occur. However, the refinement is quite general. For
-example, if we had: ::
-
-      eval :: Term a -> a -> a
-      eval (Lit i) j =  i+j
-
-the pattern match causes the type ``a`` to be refined to ``Int``
-(because of the type of the constructor ``Lit``), and that refinement
-also applies to the type of ``j``, and the result type of the ``case``
-expression. Hence the addition ``i+j`` is legal.
-
-These and many other examples are given in papers by Hongwei Xi, and Tim
-Sheard. There is a longer introduction `on the
-wiki <http://www.haskell.org/haskellwiki/GADT>`__, and Ralf Hinze's `Fun
-with phantom
-types <http://www.cs.ox.ac.uk/ralf.hinze/publications/With.pdf>`__ also
-has a number of examples. Note that papers may use different notation to
-that implemented in GHC.
-
-The rest of this section outlines the extensions to GHC that support
-GADTs. The extension is enabled with :extension:`GADTs`. The :extension:`GADTs` extension
-also sets :extension:`GADTSyntax` and :extension:`MonoLocalBinds`.
-
--  A GADT can only be declared using GADT-style syntax
-   (:ref:`gadt-style`); the old Haskell 98 syntax for data declarations
-   always declares an ordinary data type. The result type of each
-   constructor must begin with the type constructor being defined, but
-   for a GADT the arguments to the type constructor can be arbitrary
-   monotypes. For example, in the ``Term`` data type above, the type of
-   each constructor must end with ``Term ty``, but the ``ty`` need not
-   be a type variable (e.g. the ``Lit`` constructor).
-
--  It is permitted to declare an ordinary algebraic data type using
-   GADT-style syntax. What makes a GADT into a GADT is not the syntax,
-   but rather the presence of data constructors whose result type is not
-   just ``T a b``.
-
--  You cannot use a ``deriving`` clause for a GADT; only for an ordinary
-   data type.
-
--  As mentioned in :ref:`gadt-style`, record syntax is supported. For
-   example:
-
-   ::
-
-         data Term a where
-             Lit    :: { val  :: Int }      -> Term Int
-             Succ   :: { num  :: Term Int } -> Term Int
-             Pred   :: { num  :: Term Int } -> Term Int
-             IsZero :: { arg  :: Term Int } -> Term Bool
-             Pair   :: { arg1 :: Term a
-                       , arg2 :: Term b
-                       }                    -> Term (a,b)
-             If     :: { cnd  :: Term Bool
-                       , tru  :: Term a
-                       , fls  :: Term a
-                       }                    -> Term a
-
-   However, for GADTs there is the following additional constraint:
-   every constructor that has a field ``f`` must have the same result
-   type (modulo alpha conversion) Hence, in the above example, we cannot
-   merge the ``num`` and ``arg`` fields above into a single name.
-   Although their field types are both ``Term Int``, their selector
-   functions actually have different types:
-
-   ::
-
-         num :: Term Int -> Term Int
-         arg :: Term Bool -> Term Int
-
--  When pattern-matching against data constructors drawn from a GADT,
-   for example in a ``case`` expression, the following rules apply:
-
-   -  The type of the scrutinee must be rigid.
-
-   -  The type of the entire ``case`` expression must be rigid.
-
-   -  The type of any free variable mentioned in any of the ``case``
-      alternatives must be rigid.
-
-   A type is "rigid" if it is completely known to the compiler at its
-   binding site. The easiest way to ensure that a variable a rigid type
-   is to give it a type signature. For more precise details see `Simple
-   unification-based type inference for
-   GADTs <http://research.microsoft.com/%7Esimonpj/papers/gadt/>`__. The
-   criteria implemented by GHC are given in the Appendix.
-
-.. _record-system-extensions:
-
-Extensions to the record system
-===============================
-
-.. _traditional-record-syntax:
-
-Traditional record syntax
--------------------------
-
-.. extension:: NoTraditionalRecordSyntax
-    :shortdesc: Disable support for traditional record syntax
-        (as supported by Haskell 98) ``C {f = x}``
-
-    :since: 7.4.1
-
-    Disallow use of record syntax.
-
-Traditional record syntax, such as ``C {f = x}``, is enabled by default.
-To disable it, you can use the :extension:`NoTraditionalRecordSyntax` extension.
-
-.. _disambiguate-fields:
-
-Record field disambiguation
----------------------------
-
-.. extension:: DisambiguateRecordFields
-    :shortdesc: Enable record field disambiguation.
-        Implied by :extension:`RecordWildCards`.
-
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Allow the compiler to automatically choose between identically-named
-    record selectors based on type (if the choice is unambiguous).
-
-In record construction and record pattern matching it is entirely
-unambiguous which field is referred to, even if there are two different
-data types in scope with a common field name. For example:
-
-::
-
-    module M where
-      data S = MkS { x :: Int, y :: Bool }
-
-    module Foo where
-      import M
-
-      data T = MkT { x :: Int }
-
-      ok1 (MkS { x = n }) = n+1   -- Unambiguous
-      ok2 n = MkT { x = n+1 }     -- Unambiguous
-
-      bad1 k = k { x = 3 }        -- Ambiguous
-      bad2 k = x k                -- Ambiguous
-
-Even though there are two ``x``'s in scope, it is clear that the ``x``
-in the pattern in the definition of ``ok1`` can only mean the field
-``x`` from type ``S``. Similarly for the function ``ok2``. However, in
-the record update in ``bad1`` and the record selection in ``bad2`` it is
-not clear which of the two types is intended.
-
-Haskell 98 regards all four as ambiguous, but with the
-:extension:`DisambiguateRecordFields` extension, GHC will accept the former two. The
-rules are precisely the same as those for instance declarations in
-Haskell 98, where the method names on the left-hand side of the method
-bindings in an instance declaration refer unambiguously to the method of
-that class (provided they are in scope at all), even if there are other
-variables in scope with the same name. This reduces the clutter of
-qualified names when you import two records from different modules that
-use the same field name.
-
-Some details:
-
--  Field disambiguation can be combined with punning (see
-   :ref:`record-puns`). For example: ::
-
-       module Foo where
-         import M
-         x=True
-         ok3 (MkS { x }) = x+1   -- Uses both disambiguation and punning
-
--  With :extension:`DisambiguateRecordFields` you can use *unqualified* field
-   names even if the corresponding selector is only in scope *qualified*
-   For example, assuming the same module ``M`` as in our earlier
-   example, this is legal: ::
-
-       module Foo where
-         import qualified M    -- Note qualified
-
-         ok4 (M.MkS { x = n }) = n+1   -- Unambiguous
-
-   Since the constructor ``MkS`` is only in scope qualified, you must
-   name it ``M.MkS``, but the field ``x`` does not need to be qualified
-   even though ``M.x`` is in scope but ``x`` is not (In effect, it is
-   qualified by the constructor).
-
-.. _duplicate-record-fields:
-
-Duplicate record fields
------------------------
-
-.. extension:: DuplicateRecordFields
-    :shortdesc: Allow definition of record types with identically-named fields.
-
-    :implies: :extension:`DisambiguateRecordFields`
-    :since: 8.0.1
-
-    Allow definition of record types with identically-named fields.
-
-Going beyond :extension:`DisambiguateRecordFields` (see :ref:`disambiguate-fields`),
-the :extension:`DuplicateRecordFields` extension allows multiple datatypes to be
-declared using the same field names in a single module. For example, it allows
-this: ::
-
-    module M where
-      data S = MkS { x :: Int }
-      data T = MkT { x :: Bool }
-
-Uses of fields that are always unambiguous because they mention the constructor,
-including construction and pattern-matching, may freely use duplicated field
-names. For example, the following are permitted (just as with
-:extension:`DisambiguateRecordFields`): ::
-
-    s = MkS { x = 3 }
-
-    f (MkT { x = b }) = b
-
-Field names used as selector functions or in record updates must be unambiguous,
-either because there is only one such field in scope, or because a type
-signature is supplied, as described in the following sections.
-
-Selector functions
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-Fields may be used as selector functions only if they are unambiguous, so this
-is still not allowed if both ``S(x)`` and ``T(x)`` are in scope: ::
-
-    bad r = x r
-
-An ambiguous selector may be disambiguated by the type being "pushed down" to
-the occurrence of the selector (see :ref:`higher-rank-type-inference` for more
-details on what "pushed down" means). For example, the following are permitted: ::
-
-    ok1 = x :: S -> Int
-
-    ok2 :: S -> Int
-    ok2 = x
-
-    ok3 = k x -- assuming we already have k :: (S -> Int) -> _
-
-In addition, the datatype that is meant may be given as a type signature on the
-argument to the selector: ::
-
-    ok4 s = x (s :: S)
-
-However, we do not infer the type of the argument to determine the datatype, or
-have any way of deferring the choice to the constraint solver. Thus the
-following is ambiguous: ::
-
-    bad :: S -> Int
-    bad s = x s
-
-Even though a field label is duplicated in its defining module, it may be
-possible to use the selector unambiguously elsewhere. For example, another
-module could import ``S(x)`` but not ``T(x)``, and then use ``x`` unambiguously.
-
-Record updates
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-In a record update such as ``e { x = 1 }``, if there are multiple ``x`` fields
-in scope, then the type of the context must fix which record datatype is
-intended, or a type annotation must be supplied. Consider the following
-definitions: ::
-
-    data S = MkS { foo :: Int }
-    data T = MkT { foo :: Int, bar :: Int }
-    data U = MkU { bar :: Int, baz :: Int }
-
-Without :extension:`DuplicateRecordFields`, an update mentioning ``foo`` will always be
-ambiguous if all these definitions were in scope. When the extension is enabled,
-there are several options for disambiguating updates:
-
-- Check for types that have all the fields being updated. For example: ::
-
-      f x = x { foo = 3, bar = 2 }
-
-  Here ``f`` must be updating ``T`` because neither ``S`` nor ``U`` have both
-  fields.
-
-- Use the type being pushed in to the record update, as in the following: ::
-
-      g1 :: T -> T
-      g1 x = x { foo = 3 }
-
-      g2 x = x { foo = 3 } :: T
-
-      g3 = k (x { foo = 3 }) -- assuming we already have k :: T -> _
-
-- Use an explicit type signature on the record expression, as in: ::
-
-      h x = (x :: T) { foo = 3 }
-
-The type of the expression being updated will not be inferred, and no
-constraint-solving will be performed, so the following will be rejected as
-ambiguous: ::
-
-    let x :: T
-        x = blah
-    in x { foo = 3 }
-
-    \x -> [x { foo = 3 },  blah :: T ]
-
-    \ (x :: T) -> x { foo = 3 }
-
-Import and export of record fields
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-When :extension:`DuplicateRecordFields` is enabled, an ambiguous field must be exported
-as part of its datatype, rather than at the top level. For example, the
-following is legal: ::
-
-    module M (S(x), T(..)) where
-      data S = MkS { x :: Int }
-      data T = MkT { x :: Bool }
-
-However, this would not be permitted, because ``x`` is ambiguous: ::
-
-    module M (x) where ...
-
-Similar restrictions apply on import.
-
-.. _record-puns:
-
-Record puns
------------
-
-.. extension:: NamedFieldPuns
-    :shortdesc: Enable record puns.
-
-    :since: 6.10.1
-
-    Allow use of record puns.
-
-Record puns are enabled by the language extension :extension:`NamedFieldPuns`.
-
-When using records, it is common to write a pattern that binds a
-variable with the same name as a record field, such as: ::
-
-    data C = C {a :: Int}
-    f (C {a = a}) = a
-
-Record punning permits the variable name to be elided, so one can simply
-write ::
-
-    f (C {a}) = a
-
-to mean the same pattern as above. That is, in a record pattern, the
-pattern ``a`` expands into the pattern ``a = a`` for the same name
-``a``.
-
-Note that:
-
--  Record punning can also be used in an expression, writing, for
-   example, ::
-
-       let a = 1 in C {a}
-
-   instead of ::
-
-       let a = 1 in C {a = a}
-
-   The expansion is purely syntactic, so the expanded right-hand side
-   expression refers to the nearest enclosing variable that is spelled
-   the same as the field name.
-
--  Puns and other patterns can be mixed in the same record: ::
-
-       data C = C {a :: Int, b :: Int}
-       f (C {a, b = 4}) = a
-
--  Puns can be used wherever record patterns occur (e.g. in ``let``
-   bindings or at the top-level).
-
--  A pun on a qualified field name is expanded by stripping off the
-   module qualifier. For example: ::
-
-       f (C {M.a}) = a
-
-   means ::
-
-       f (M.C {M.a = a}) = a
-
-   (This is useful if the field selector ``a`` for constructor ``M.C``
-   is only in scope in qualified form.)
-
-.. _record-wildcards:
-
-Record wildcards
-----------------
-
-.. extension:: RecordWildCards
-    :shortdesc: Enable record wildcards.
-        Implies :extension:`DisambiguateRecordFields`.
-
-    :implies: :extension:`DisambiguateRecordFields`.
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Allow the use of wildcards in record construction and pattern matching.
-
-Record wildcards are enabled by the language extension :extension:`RecordWildCards`. This
-exension implies :extension:`DisambiguateRecordFields`.
-
-For records with many fields, it can be tiresome to write out each field
-individually in a record pattern, as in ::
-
-    data C = C {a :: Int, b :: Int, c :: Int, d :: Int}
-    f (C {a = 1, b = b, c = c, d = d}) = b + c + d
-
-Record wildcard syntax permits a "``..``" in a record pattern, where
-each elided field ``f`` is replaced by the pattern ``f = f``. For
-example, the above pattern can be written as ::
-
-    f (C {a = 1, ..}) = b + c + d
-
-More details:
-
--  Record wildcards in patterns can be mixed with other patterns,
-   including puns (:ref:`record-puns`); for example, in a pattern
-   ``(C {a = 1, b, ..})``. Additionally, record wildcards can be used
-   wherever record patterns occur, including in ``let`` bindings and at
-   the top-level. For example, the top-level binding ::
-
-       C {a = 1, ..} = e
-
-   defines ``b``, ``c``, and ``d``.
-
--  Record wildcards can also be used in an expression, when constructing
-   a record. For example, ::
-
-       let {a = 1; b = 2; c = 3; d = 4} in C {..}
-
-   in place of ::
-
-       let {a = 1; b = 2; c = 3; d = 4} in C {a=a, b=b, c=c, d=d}
-
-   The expansion is purely syntactic, so the record wildcard expression
-   refers to the nearest enclosing variables that are spelled the same
-   as the omitted field names.
-
--  For both pattern and expression wildcards, the "``..``" expands to
-   the missing *in-scope* record fields. Specifically the expansion of
-   "``C {..}``" includes ``f`` if and only if:
-
-   -  ``f`` is a record field of constructor ``C``.
-
-   -  The record field ``f`` is in scope somehow (either qualified or
-      unqualified).
-
-   These rules restrict record wildcards to the situations in which the
-   user could have written the expanded version. For example ::
-
-       module M where
-         data R = R { a,b,c :: Int }
-       module X where
-         import M( R(R,a,c) )
-         f a b = R { .. }
-
-   The ``R{..}`` expands to ``R{a=a}``, omitting ``b`` since the
-   record field is not in scope, and omitting ``c`` since the variable
-   ``c`` is not in scope (apart from the binding of the record selector
-   ``c``, of course).
-
--  When record wildcards are use in record construction, a field ``f``
-   is initialised only if ``f`` is in scope,
-   and is not imported or bound at top level.
-   For example, ``f`` can be bound by an enclosing pattern match or
-   let/where-binding. For example ::
-
-        module M where
-          import A( a )
-
-          data R = R { a,b,c,d :: Int }
-
-          c = 3 :: Int
-
-          f b = R { .. }  -- Expands to R { b = b, d = d }
-            where
-              d = b+1
-
-   Here, ``a`` is imported, and ``c`` is bound at top level, so neither
-   contribute to the expansion of the "``..``".
-   The motivation here is that it should be
-   easy for the reader to figure out what the "``..``" expands to.
-
--  Record wildcards cannot be used (a) in a record update construct, and
-   (b) for data constructors that are not declared with record fields.
-   For example: ::
-
-       f x = x { v=True, .. }   -- Illegal (a)
-
-       data T = MkT Int Bool
-       g = MkT { .. }           -- Illegal (b)
-       h (MkT { .. }) = True    -- Illegal (b)
-
-
-.. _record-field-selector-polymorphism:
-
-Record field selector polymorphism
-----------------------------------
-
-The module :base-ref:`GHC.Records.` defines the following: ::
-
-  class HasField (x :: k) r a | x r -> a where
-    getField :: r -> a
-
-A ``HasField x r a`` constraint represents the fact that ``x`` is a
-field of type ``a`` belonging to a record type ``r``.  The
-``getField`` method gives the record selector function.
-
-This allows definitions that are polymorphic over record types with a specified
-field.  For example, the following works with any record type that has a field
-``name :: String``: ::
-
-  foo :: HasField "name" r String => r -> String
-  foo r = reverse (getField @"name" r)
-
-``HasField`` is a magic built-in typeclass (similar to ``Coercible``, for
-example).  It is given special treatment by the constraint solver (see
-:ref:`solving-hasfield-constraints`).  Users may define their own instances of
-``HasField`` also (see :ref:`virtual-record-fields`).
-
-.. _solving-hasfield-constraints:
-
-Solving HasField constraints
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-If the constraint solver encounters a constraint ``HasField x r a``
-where ``r`` is a concrete datatype with a field ``x`` in scope, it
-will automatically solve the constraint using the field selector as
-the dictionary, unifying ``a`` with the type of the field if
-necessary.  This happens irrespective of which extensions are enabled.
-
-For example, if the following datatype is in scope ::
-
-  data Person = Person { name :: String }
-
-the end result is rather like having an instance ::
-
-  instance HasField "name" Person String where
-    getField = name
-
-except that this instance is not actually generated anywhere, rather
-the constraint is solved directly by the constraint solver.
-
-A field must be in scope for the corresponding ``HasField`` constraint
-to be solved.  This retains the existing representation hiding
-mechanism, whereby a module may choose not to export a field,
-preventing client modules from accessing or updating it directly.
-
-Solving ``HasField`` constraints depends on the field selector functions that
-are generated for each datatype definition:
-
--  If a record field does not have a selector function because its type would allow
-   an existential variable to escape, the corresponding ``HasField`` constraint
-   will not be solved.  For example, ::
-
-     {-# LANGUAGE ExistentialQuantification #-}
-     data Exists t = forall x . MkExists { unExists :: t x }
-
-   does not give rise to a selector ``unExists :: Exists t -> t x`` and we will not
-   solve ``HasField "unExists" (Exists t) a`` automatically.
-
--  If a record field has a polymorphic type (and hence the selector function is
-   higher-rank), the corresponding ``HasField`` constraint will not be solved,
-   because doing so would violate the functional dependency on ``HasField`` and/or
-   require impredicativity.  For example, ::
-
-     {-# LANGUAGE RankNTypes #-}
-     data Higher = MkHigher { unHigher :: forall t . t -> t }
-
-   gives rise to a selector ``unHigher :: Higher -> (forall t . t -> t)`` but does
-   not lead to solution of the constraint ``HasField "unHigher" Higher a``.
-
--  A record GADT may have a restricted type for a selector function, which may lead
-   to additional unification when solving ``HasField`` constraints.  For example, ::
-
-     {-# LANGUAGE GADTs #-}
-     data Gadt t where
-       MkGadt :: { unGadt :: Maybe v } -> Gadt [v]
-
-   gives rise to a selector ``unGadt :: Gadt [v] -> Maybe v``, so the solver will reduce
-   the constraint ``HasField "unGadt" (Gadt t) b`` by unifying ``t ~ [v]`` and
-   ``b ~ Maybe v`` for some fresh metavariable ``v``, rather as if we had an instance ::
-
-     instance (t ~ [v], b ~ Maybe v) => HasField "unGadt" (Gadt t) b
-
--  If a record type has an old-fashioned datatype context, the ``HasField``
-   constraint will be reduced to solving the constraints from the context.
-   For example, ::
-
-     {-# LANGUAGE DatatypeContexts #-}
-     data Eq a => Silly a = MkSilly { unSilly :: a }
-
-   gives rise to a selector ``unSilly :: Eq a => Silly a -> a``, so
-   the solver will reduce the constraint ``HasField "unSilly" (Silly a) b`` to
-   ``Eq a`` (and unify ``a`` with ``b``), rather as if we had an instance ::
-
-     instance (Eq a, a ~ b) => HasField "unSilly" (Silly a) b
-
-.. _virtual-record-fields:
-
-Virtual record fields
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-Users may define their own instances of ``HasField``, provided they do
-not conflict with the built-in constraint solving behaviour.  This
-allows "virtual" record fields to be defined for datatypes that do not
-otherwise have them.
-
-For example, this instance would make the ``name`` field of ``Person``
-accessible using ``#fullname`` as well: ::
-
-  instance HasField "fullname" Person String where
-    getField = name
-
-More substantially, an anonymous records library could provide
-``HasField`` instances for its anonymous records, and thus be
-compatible with the polymorphic record selectors introduced by this
-proposal.  For example, something like this makes it possible to use
-``getField`` to access ``Record`` values with the appropriate
-string in the type-level list of fields: ::
-
-  data Record (xs :: [(k, Type)]) where
-    Nil  :: Record '[]
-    Cons :: Proxy x -> a -> Record xs -> Record ('(x, a) ': xs)
-
-  instance HasField x (Record ('(x, a) ': xs)) a where
-    getField (Cons _ v _) = v
-  instance HasField x (Record xs) a => HasField x (Record ('(y, b) ': xs)) a where
-    getField (Cons _ _ r) = getField @x r
-
-  r :: Record '[ '("name", String) ]
-  r = Cons Proxy "R" Nil)
-
-  x = getField @"name" r
-
-Since representations such as this can support field labels with kinds other
-than ``Symbol``, the ``HasField`` class is poly-kinded (even though the built-in
-constraint solving works only at kind ``Symbol``).  In particular, this allows
-users to declare scoped field labels such as in the following example: ::
-
-  data PersonFields = Name
-
-  s :: Record '[ '(Name, String) ]
-  s = Cons Proxy "S" Nil
-
-  y = getField @Name s
-
-In order to avoid conflicting with the built-in constraint solving,
-the following user-defined ``HasField`` instances are prohibited (in
-addition to the usual rules, such as the prohibition on type
-families appearing in instance heads):
-
--  ``HasField _ r _`` where ``r`` is a variable;
-
--  ``HasField _ (T ...) _`` if ``T`` is a data family (because it
-   might have fields introduced later, using data instance declarations);
-
--  ``HasField x (T ...) _`` if ``x`` is a variable and ``T`` has any
-   fields at all (but this instance is permitted if ``T`` has no fields);
-
--  ``HasField "foo" (T ...) _`` if ``T`` has a field ``foo`` (but this
-   instance is permitted if it does not).
-
-If a field has a higher-rank or existential type, the corresponding ``HasField``
-constraint will not be solved automatically (as described above), but in the
-interests of simplicity we do not permit users to define their own instances
-either.  If a field is not in scope, the corresponding instance is still
-prohibited, to avoid conflicts in downstream modules.
-
-
-.. _deriving:
-
-Extensions to the "deriving" mechanism
-======================================
-
-Haskell 98 allows the programmer to add a deriving clause to a data type
-declaration, to generate a standard instance declaration for specified class.
-GHC extends this mechanism along several axes:
-
-* The derivation mechanism can be used separately from the data type
-  declaration, using the `standalone deriving mechanism
-  <#stand-alone-deriving>`__.
-
-* In Haskell 98, the only derivable classes are ``Eq``,
-  ``Ord``, ``Enum``, ``Ix``, ``Bounded``, ``Read``, and ``Show``. `Various
-  language extensions <#deriving-extra>`__ extend this list.
-
-* Besides the stock approach to deriving instances by generating all method
-  definitions, GHC supports two additional deriving strategies, which can
-  derive arbitrary classes:
-
-  * `Generalised newtype deriving <#newtype-deriving>`__ for newtypes and
-  * `deriving any class <#derive-any-class>`__ using an empty instance
-    declaration.
-
-  The user can optionally declare the desired `deriving strategy
-  <#deriving-stragies>`__, especially if the compiler chooses the wrong
-  one `by default <#default-deriving-strategy>`__.
-
-.. _empty-data-deriving:
-
-Deriving instances for empty data types
----------------------------------------
-
-.. extension:: EmptyDataDeriving
-    :shortdesc: Allow deriving instances of standard type classes for
-                empty data types.
-
-    :since: 8.4.1
-
-    Allow deriving instances of standard type classes for empty data types.
-
-One can write data types with no constructors using the
-:extension:`EmptyDataDecls` flag (see :ref:`nullary-types`), which is on by
-default in Haskell 2010. What is not on by default is the ability to derive
-type class instances for these types. This ability is enabled through use of
-the :extension:`EmptyDataDeriving` flag. For instance, this lets one write: ::
-
-    data Empty deriving (Eq, Ord, Read, Show)
-
-This would generate the following instances: ::
-
-    instance Eq Empty where
-      _ == _ = True
-
-    instance Ord Empty where
-      compare _ _ = EQ
-
-    instance Read Empty where
-      readPrec = pfail
-
-    instance Show Empty where
-      showsPrec _ x = case x of {}
-
-The :extension:`EmptyDataDeriving` flag is only required to enable deriving
-of these four "standard" type classes (which are mentioned in the Haskell
-Report). Other extensions to the ``deriving`` mechanism, which are explained
-below in greater detail, do not require :extension:`EmptyDataDeriving` to be
-used in conjunction with empty data types. These include:
-
-* :extension:`StandaloneDeriving` (see :ref:`stand-alone-deriving`)
-* Type classes which require their own extensions to be enabled to be derived,
-  such as :extension:`DeriveFunctor` (see :ref:`deriving-extra`)
-* :extension:`DeriveAnyClass` (see :ref:`derive-any-class`)
-
-.. _deriving-inferred:
-
-Inferred context for deriving clauses
--------------------------------------
-
-The Haskell Report is vague about exactly when a ``deriving`` clause is
-legal. For example: ::
-
-      data T0 f a = MkT0 a         deriving( Eq )
-      data T1 f a = MkT1 (f a)     deriving( Eq )
-      data T2 f a = MkT2 (f (f a)) deriving( Eq )
-
-The natural generated ``Eq`` code would result in these instance
-declarations: ::
-
-      instance Eq a         => Eq (T0 f a) where ...
-      instance Eq (f a)     => Eq (T1 f a) where ...
-      instance Eq (f (f a)) => Eq (T2 f a) where ...
-
-The first of these is obviously fine. The second is still fine, although
-less obviously. The third is not Haskell 98, and risks losing
-termination of instances.
-
-GHC takes a conservative position: it accepts the first two, but not the
-third. The rule is this: each constraint in the inferred instance
-context must consist only of type variables, with no repetitions.
-
-This rule is applied regardless of flags. If you want a more exotic
-context, you can write it yourself, using the `standalone deriving
-mechanism <#stand-alone-deriving>`__.
-
-.. _stand-alone-deriving:
-
-Stand-alone deriving declarations
----------------------------------
-
-.. extension:: StandaloneDeriving
-    :shortdesc: Enable standalone deriving.
-
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Allow the use of stand-alone ``deriving`` declarations.
-
-GHC allows stand-alone ``deriving`` declarations, enabled by
-:extension:`StandaloneDeriving`: ::
-
-      data Foo a = Bar a | Baz String
-
-      deriving instance Eq a => Eq (Foo a)
-
-The syntax is identical to that of an ordinary instance declaration
-apart from (a) the keyword ``deriving``, and (b) the absence of the
-``where`` part.
-
-However, standalone deriving differs from a ``deriving`` clause in a
-number of important ways:
-
--  The standalone deriving declaration does not need to be in the same
-   module as the data type declaration. (But be aware of the dangers of
-   orphan instances (:ref:`orphan-modules`).
-
--  In most cases, you must supply an explicit context (in the example the
-   context is ``(Eq a)``), exactly as you would in an ordinary instance
-   declaration. (In contrast, in a ``deriving`` clause attached to a
-   data type declaration, the context is inferred.)
-
-   The exception to this rule is that the context of a standalone deriving
-   declaration can infer its context when a single, extra-wildcards constraint
-   is used as the context, such as in: ::
-
-         deriving instance _ => Eq (Foo a)
-
-   This is essentially the same as if you had written ``deriving Eq`` after
-   the declaration for ``data Foo a``. Using this feature requires the use of
-   :extension:`PartialTypeSignatures` (:ref:`partial-type-signatures`).
-
--  Unlike a ``deriving`` declaration attached to a ``data`` declaration,
-   the instance can be more specific than the data type (assuming you
-   also use :extension:`FlexibleInstances`, :ref:`instance-rules`). Consider
-   for example ::
-
-         data Foo a = Bar a | Baz String
-
-         deriving instance Eq a => Eq (Foo [a])
-         deriving instance Eq a => Eq (Foo (Maybe a))
-
-   This will generate a derived instance for ``(Foo [a])`` and
-   ``(Foo (Maybe a))``, but other types such as ``(Foo (Int,Bool))``
-   will not be an instance of ``Eq``.
-
--  Unlike a ``deriving`` declaration attached to a ``data`` declaration,
-   GHC does not restrict the form of the data type. Instead, GHC simply
-   generates the appropriate boilerplate code for the specified class,
-   and typechecks it. If there is a type error, it is your problem. (GHC
-   will show you the offending code if it has a type error.)
-
-   The merit of this is that you can derive instances for GADTs and
-   other exotic data types, providing only that the boilerplate code
-   does indeed typecheck. For example: ::
-
-         data T a where
-            T1 :: T Int
-            T2 :: T Bool
-
-         deriving instance Show (T a)
-
-   In this example, you cannot say ``... deriving( Show )`` on the data
-   type declaration for ``T``, because ``T`` is a GADT, but you *can*
-   generate the instance declaration using stand-alone deriving.
-
-   The down-side is that, if the boilerplate code fails to typecheck,
-   you will get an error message about that code, which you did not
-   write. Whereas, with a ``deriving`` clause the side-conditions are
-   necessarily more conservative, but any error message may be more
-   comprehensible.
-
--  Under most circumstances, you cannot use standalone deriving to create an
-   instance for a data type whose constructors are not all in scope. This is
-   because the derived instance would generate code that uses the constructors
-   behind the scenes, which would break abstraction.
-
-   The one exception to this rule is :extension:`DeriveAnyClass`, since
-   deriving an instance via :extension:`DeriveAnyClass` simply generates
-   an empty instance declaration, which does not require the use of any
-   constructors. See the `deriving any class <#derive-any-class>`__ section
-   for more details.
-
-In other ways, however, a standalone deriving obeys the same rules as
-ordinary deriving:
-
--  A ``deriving instance`` declaration must obey the same rules
-   concerning form and termination as ordinary instance declarations,
-   controlled by the same flags; see :ref:`instance-decls`.
-
--  The stand-alone syntax is generalised for newtypes in exactly the
-   same way that ordinary ``deriving`` clauses are generalised
-   (:ref:`newtype-deriving`). For example: ::
-
-         newtype Foo a = MkFoo (State Int a)
-
-         deriving instance MonadState Int Foo
-
-   GHC always treats the *last* parameter of the instance (``Foo`` in
-   this example) as the type whose instance is being derived.
-
-.. _deriving-extra:
-
-Deriving instances of extra classes (``Data``, etc.)
-----------------------------------------------------
-
-Haskell 98 allows the programmer to add "``deriving( Eq, Ord )``" to a
-data type declaration, to generate a standard instance declaration for
-classes specified in the ``deriving`` clause. In Haskell 98, the only
-classes that may appear in the ``deriving`` clause are the standard
-classes ``Eq``, ``Ord``, ``Enum``, ``Ix``, ``Bounded``, ``Read``, and
-``Show``.
-
-GHC extends this list with several more classes that may be
-automatically derived:
-
--  With :extension:`DeriveGeneric`, you can derive instances of the classes
-   ``Generic`` and ``Generic1``, defined in ``GHC.Generics``. You can
-   use these to define generic functions, as described in
-   :ref:`generic-programming`.
-
--  With :extension:`DeriveFunctor`, you can derive instances of the class
-   ``Functor``, defined in ``GHC.Base``.
-
--  With :extension:`DeriveDataTypeable`, you can derive instances of the class
-   ``Data``, defined in ``Data.Data``.
-
--  With :extension:`DeriveFoldable`, you can derive instances of the class
-   ``Foldable``, defined in ``Data.Foldable``.
-
--  With :extension:`DeriveTraversable`, you can derive instances of the class
-   ``Traversable``, defined in ``Data.Traversable``. Since the
-   ``Traversable`` instance dictates the instances of ``Functor`` and
-   ``Foldable``, you'll probably want to derive them too, so
-   :extension:`DeriveTraversable` implies :extension:`DeriveFunctor` and
-   :extension:`DeriveFoldable`.
-
--  With :extension:`DeriveLift`, you can derive instances of the class ``Lift``,
-   defined in the ``Language.Haskell.TH.Syntax`` module of the
-   ``template-haskell`` package.
-
-You can also use a standalone deriving declaration instead (see
-:ref:`stand-alone-deriving`).
-
-In each case the appropriate class must be in scope before it can be
-mentioned in the ``deriving`` clause.
-
-.. _deriving-functor:
-
-Deriving ``Functor`` instances
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-.. extension:: DeriveFunctor
-    :shortdesc: Enable deriving for the Functor class.
-        Implied by :extension:`DeriveTraversable`.
-
-    :since: 7.10.1
-
-    Allow automatic deriving of instances for the ``Functor`` typeclass.
-
-
-With :extension:`DeriveFunctor`, one can derive ``Functor`` instances for data types
-of kind ``Type -> Type``. For example, this declaration::
-
-    data Example a = Ex a Char (Example a) (Example Char)
-      deriving Functor
-
-would generate the following instance: ::
-
-    instance Functor Example where
-      fmap f (Ex a1 a2 a3 a4) = Ex (f a1) a2 (fmap f a3) a4
-
-The basic algorithm for :extension:`DeriveFunctor` walks the arguments of each
-constructor of a data type, applying a mapping function depending on the type
-of each argument. If a plain type variable is found that is syntactically
-equivalent to the last type parameter of the data type (``a`` in the above
-example), then we apply the function ``f`` directly to it. If a type is
-encountered that is not syntactically equivalent to the last type parameter
-*but does mention* the last type parameter somewhere in it, then a recursive
-call to ``fmap`` is made. If a type is found which doesn't mention the last
-type parameter at all, then it is left alone.
-
-The second of those cases, in which a type is unequal to the type parameter but
-does contain the type parameter, can be surprisingly tricky. For example, the
-following example compiles::
-
-    newtype Right a = Right (Either Int a) deriving Functor
-
-Modifying the code slightly, however, produces code which will not compile::
-
-    newtype Wrong a = Wrong (Either a Int) deriving Functor
-
-The difference involves the placement of the last type parameter, ``a``. In the
-``Right`` case, ``a`` occurs within the type ``Either Int a``, and moreover, it
-appears as the last type argument of ``Either``. In the ``Wrong`` case,
-however, ``a`` is not the last type argument to ``Either``; rather, ``Int`` is.
-
-This distinction is important because of the way :extension:`DeriveFunctor` works. The
-derived ``Functor Right`` instance would be::
-
-    instance Functor Right where
-      fmap f (Right a) = Right (fmap f a)
-
-Given a value of type ``Right a``, GHC must produce a value of type
-``Right b``. Since the argument to the ``Right`` constructor has type
-``Either Int a``, the code recursively calls ``fmap`` on it to produce a value
-of type ``Either Int b``, which is used in turn to construct a final value of
-type ``Right b``.
-
-The generated code for the ``Functor Wrong`` instance would look exactly the
-same, except with ``Wrong`` replacing every occurrence of ``Right``. The
-problem is now that ``fmap`` is being applied recursively to a value of type
-``Either a Int``. This cannot possibly produce a value of type
-``Either b Int``, as ``fmap`` can only change the last type parameter! This
-causes the generated code to be ill-typed.
-
-As a general rule, if a data type has a derived ``Functor`` instance and its
-last type parameter occurs on the right-hand side of the data declaration, then
-either it must (1) occur bare (e.g., ``newtype Id a = Id a``), or (2) occur as the
-last argument of a type constructor (as in ``Right`` above).
-
-There are two exceptions to this rule:
-
-#. Tuple types. When a non-unit tuple is used on the right-hand side of a data
-   declaration, :extension:`DeriveFunctor` treats it as a product of distinct types.
-   In other words, the following code::
-
-       newtype Triple a = Triple (a, Int, [a]) deriving Functor
-
-   Would result in a generated ``Functor`` instance like so::
-
-       instance Functor Triple where
-         fmap f (Triple a) =
-           Triple (case a of
-                        (a1, a2, a3) -> (f a1, a2, fmap f a3))
-
-   That is, :extension:`DeriveFunctor` pattern-matches its way into tuples and maps
-   over each type that constitutes the tuple. The generated code is
-   reminiscent of what would be generated from
-   ``data Triple a = Triple a Int [a]``, except with extra machinery to handle
-   the tuple.
-
-#. Function types. The last type parameter can appear anywhere in a function
-   type as long as it occurs in a *covariant* position. To illustrate what this
-   means, consider the following three examples::
-
-       newtype CovFun1 a = CovFun1 (Int -> a) deriving Functor
-       newtype CovFun2 a = CovFun2 ((a -> Int) -> a) deriving Functor
-       newtype CovFun3 a = CovFun3 (((Int -> a) -> Int) -> a) deriving Functor
-
-   All three of these examples would compile without issue. On the other hand::
-
-       newtype ContraFun1 a = ContraFun1 (a -> Int) deriving Functor
-       newtype ContraFun2 a = ContraFun2 ((Int -> a) -> Int) deriving Functor
-       newtype ContraFun3 a = ContraFun3 (((a -> Int) -> a) -> Int) deriving Functor
-
-   While these examples look similar, none of them would successfully compile.
-   This is because all occurrences of the last type parameter ``a`` occur in *contravariant* positions, not covariant ones.
-
-   Intuitively, a covariant type is *produced*, and a contravariant type is
-   *consumed*. Most types in Haskell are covariant, but the function type is
-   special in that the lefthand side of a function arrow reverses variance. If
-   a function type ``a -> b`` appears in a covariant position (e.g.,
-   ``CovFun1`` above), then ``a`` is in a contravariant position and ``b`` is
-   in a covariant position. Similarly, if ``a -> b`` appears in a contravariant
-   position (e.g., ``CovFun2`` above), then ``a`` is in ``a`` covariant
-   position and ``b`` is in a contravariant position.
-
-   To see why a data type with a contravariant occurrence of its last type
-   parameter cannot have a derived ``Functor`` instance, let's suppose that a
-   ``Functor ContraFun1`` instance exists. The implementation would look
-   something like this::
-
-       instance Functor ContraFun1 where
-         fmap f (ContraFun g) = ContraFun (\x -> _)
-
-   We have ``f :: a -> b``, ``g :: a -> Int``, and ``x :: b``. Using these, we
-   must somehow fill in the hole (denoted with an underscore) with a value of
-   type ``Int``. What are our options?
-
-   We could try applying ``g`` to ``x``. This won't work though, as ``g``
-   expects an argument of type ``a``, and ``x :: b``. Even worse, we can't turn
-   ``x`` into something of type ``a``, since ``f`` also needs an argument of
-   type ``a``! In short, there's no good way to make this work.
-
-   On the other hand, a derived ``Functor`` instances for the ``CovFun``\ s are
-   within the realm of possibility::
-
-       instance Functor CovFun1 where
-         fmap f (CovFun1 g) = CovFun1 (\x -> f (g x))
-
-       instance Functor CovFun2 where
-         fmap f (CovFun2 g) = CovFun2 (\h -> f (g (\x -> h (f x))))
-
-       instance Functor CovFun3 where
-         fmap f (CovFun3 g) = CovFun3 (\h -> f (g (\k -> h (\x -> f (k x)))))
-
-There are some other scenarios in which a derived ``Functor`` instance will
-fail to compile:
-
-#. A data type has no type parameters (e.g., ``data Nothing = Nothing``).
-
-#. A data type's last type variable is used in a :extension:`DatatypeContexts`
-   constraint (e.g., ``data Ord a => O a = O a``).
-
-#. A data type's last type variable is used in an
-   :extension:`ExistentialQuantification` constraint, or is refined in a GADT. For
-   example, ::
-
-       data T a b where
-           T4 :: Ord b => b -> T a b
-           T5 :: b -> T b b
-           T6 :: T a (b,b)
-
-       deriving instance Functor (T a)
-
-   would not compile successfully due to the way in which ``b`` is constrained.
-
-When the last type parameter has a phantom role (see :ref:`roles`), the derived
-``Functor`` instance will not be produced using the usual algorithm. Instead,
-the entire value will be coerced. ::
-
-    data Phantom a = Z | S (Phantom a) deriving Functor
-
-will produce the following instance: ::
-
-    instance Functor Phantom where
-      fmap _ = coerce
-
-When a type has no constructors, the derived ``Functor`` instance will
-simply force the (bottom) value of the argument using
-:extension:`EmptyCase`. ::
-
-    data V a deriving Functor
-    type role V nominal
-
-will produce
-
-    instance Functor V where
-      fmap _ z = case z of
-
-.. _deriving-foldable:
-
-Deriving ``Foldable`` instances
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-.. extension:: DeriveFoldable
-    :shortdesc: Enable deriving for the Foldable class.
-        Implied by :extension:`DeriveTraversable`.
-
-    :since: 7.10.1
-
-    Allow automatic deriving of instances for the ``Foldable`` typeclass.
-
-With :extension:`DeriveFoldable`, one can derive ``Foldable`` instances for data types
-of kind ``Type -> Type``. For example, this declaration::
-
-    data Example a = Ex a Char (Example a) (Example Char)
-      deriving Foldable
-
-would generate the following instance::
-
-    instance Foldable Example where
-      foldr f z (Ex a1 a2 a3 a4) = f a1 (foldr f z a3)
-      foldMap f (Ex a1 a2 a3 a4) = mappend (f a1) (foldMap f a3)
-
-The algorithm for :extension:`DeriveFoldable` is adapted from the
-:extension:`DeriveFunctor` algorithm, but it generates definitions for
-``foldMap``, ``foldr``, and ``null`` instead of ``fmap``. In addition,
-:extension:`DeriveFoldable` filters out all constructor arguments on the RHS
-expression whose types do not mention the last type parameter, since those
-arguments do not need to be folded over.
-
-When the type parameter has a phantom role (see :ref:`roles`),
-:extension:`DeriveFoldable` derives a trivial instance. For example, this
-declaration: ::
-
-    data Phantom a = Z | S (Phantom a)
-
-will generate the following instance. ::
-
-    instance Foldable Phantom where
-      foldMap _ _ = mempty
-
-Similarly, when the type has no constructors, :extension:`DeriveFoldable` will
-derive a trivial instance: ::
-
-    data V a deriving Foldable
-    type role V nominal
-
-will generate the following. ::
-
-    instance Foldable V where
-      foldMap _ _ = mempty
-
-Here are the differences between the generated code for ``Functor`` and
-``Foldable``:
-
-#. When a bare type variable ``a`` is encountered, :extension:`DeriveFunctor`
-would generate ``f a`` for an ``fmap`` definition. :extension:`DeriveFoldable`
-would generate ``f a z`` for ``foldr``, ``f a`` for ``foldMap``, and ``False``
-for ``null``.
-
-#. When a type that is not syntactically equivalent to ``a``, but which does
-   contain ``a``, is encountered, :extension:`DeriveFunctor` recursively calls
-   ``fmap`` on it. Similarly, :extension:`DeriveFoldable` would recursively call
-   ``foldr`` and ``foldMap``. Depending on the context, ``null`` may recursively
-   call ``null`` or ``all null``. For example, given ::
-
-       data F a = F (P a)
-       data G a = G (P (a, Int))
-       data H a = H (P (Q a))
-
-   ``Foldable`` deriving will produce ::
-
-       null (F x) = null x
-       null (G x) = null x
-       null (H x) = all null x
-
-#. :extension:`DeriveFunctor` puts everything back together again at the end by
-   invoking the constructor. :extension:`DeriveFoldable`, however, builds up a value
-   of some type. For ``foldr``, this is accomplished by chaining applications
-   of ``f`` and recursive ``foldr`` calls on the state value ``z``. For
-   ``foldMap``, this happens by combining all values with ``mappend``. For ``null``,
-   the values are usually combined with ``&&``. However, if any of the values is
-   known to be ``False``, all the rest will be dropped. For example, ::
-
-       data SnocList a = Nil | Snoc (SnocList a) a
-
-   will not produce ::
-
-       null (Snoc xs _) = null xs && False
-
-   (which would walk the whole list), but rather ::
-
-       null (Snoc _ _) = False
-
-There are some other differences regarding what data types can have derived
-``Foldable`` instances:
-
-#. Data types containing function types on the right-hand side cannot have
-   derived ``Foldable`` instances.
-
-#. ``Foldable`` instances can be derived for data types in which the last type
-   parameter is existentially constrained or refined in a GADT. For example,
-   this data type::
-
-       data E a where
-           E1 :: (a ~ Int) => a   -> E a
-           E2 ::              Int -> E Int
-           E3 :: (a ~ Int) => a   -> E Int
-           E4 :: (a ~ Int) => Int -> E a
-
-       deriving instance Foldable E
-
-   would have the following generated ``Foldable`` instance::
-
-       instance Foldable E where
-           foldr f z (E1 e) = f e z
-           foldr f z (E2 e) = z
-           foldr f z (E3 e) = z
-           foldr f z (E4 e) = z
-
-           foldMap f (E1 e) = f e
-           foldMap f (E2 e) = mempty
-           foldMap f (E3 e) = mempty
-           foldMap f (E4 e) = mempty
-
-   Notice how every constructor of ``E`` utilizes some sort of existential
-   quantification, but only the argument of ``E1`` is actually "folded over".
-   This is because we make a deliberate choice to only fold over universally
-   polymorphic types that are syntactically equivalent to the last type
-   parameter. In particular:
-
-  -  We don't fold over the arguments of ``E1`` or ``E4`` because even though
-     ``(a ~ Int)``, ``Int`` is not syntactically equivalent to ``a``.
-
-  -  We don't fold over the argument of ``E3`` because ``a`` is not universally
-     polymorphic. The ``a`` in ``E3`` is (implicitly) existentially quantified,
-     so it is not the same as the last type parameter of ``E``.
-
-.. _deriving-traversable:
-
-Deriving ``Traversable`` instances
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-
-.. extension:: DeriveTraversable
-    :shortdesc: Enable deriving for the Traversable class.
-        Implies :extension:`DeriveFunctor` and :extension:`DeriveFoldable`.
-
-    :implies: :extension:`DeriveFoldable`, :extension:`DeriveFunctor`
-    :since: 7.10.1
-
-    Allow automatic deriving of instances for the ``Traversable`` typeclass.
-
-With :extension:`DeriveTraversable`, one can derive ``Traversable`` instances for data
-types of kind ``Type -> Type``. For example, this declaration::
-
-    data Example a = Ex a Char (Example a) (Example Char)
-      deriving (Functor, Foldable, Traversable)
-
-would generate the following ``Traversable`` instance::
-
-    instance Traversable Example where
-      traverse f (Ex a1 a2 a3 a4)
-        = fmap (\b1 b3 -> Ex b1 a2 b3 a4) (f a1) <*> traverse f a3
-
-The algorithm for :extension:`DeriveTraversable` is adapted from the
-:extension:`DeriveFunctor` algorithm, but it generates a definition for ``traverse``
-instead of ``fmap``. In addition, :extension:`DeriveTraversable` filters out
-all constructor arguments on the RHS expression whose types do not mention the
-last type parameter, since those arguments do not produce any effects in a
-traversal.
-
-When the type parameter has a phantom role (see :ref:`roles`),
-:extension:`DeriveTraversable` coerces its argument. For example, this
-declaration::
-
-    data Phantom a = Z | S (Phantom a) deriving Traversable
-
-will generate the following instance::
-
-    instance Traversable Phantom where
-      traverse _ z = pure (coerce z)
-
-When the type has no constructors, :extension:`DeriveTraversable` will
-derive the laziest instance it can. ::
-
-    data V a deriving Traversable
-    type role V nominal
-
-will generate the following, using :extension:`EmptyCase`: ::
-
-    instance Traversable V where
-      traverse _ z = pure (case z of)
-
-Here are the differences between the generated code in each
-extension:
-
-#. When a bare type variable ``a`` is encountered, both :extension:`DeriveFunctor` and
-   :extension:`DeriveTraversable` would generate ``f a`` for an ``fmap`` and
-   ``traverse`` definition, respectively.
-
-#. When a type that is not syntactically equivalent to ``a``, but which does
-   contain ``a``, is encountered, :extension:`DeriveFunctor` recursively calls
-   ``fmap`` on it. Similarly, :extension:`DeriveTraversable` would recursively call
-   ``traverse``.
-
-#. :extension:`DeriveFunctor` puts everything back together again at the end by
-   invoking the constructor. :extension:`DeriveTraversable` does something similar,
-   but it works in an ``Applicative`` context by chaining everything together
-   with ``(<*>)``.
-
-Unlike :extension:`DeriveFunctor`, :extension:`DeriveTraversable` cannot be used on data
-types containing a function type on the right-hand side.
-
-For a full specification of the algorithms used in :extension:`DeriveFunctor`,
-:extension:`DeriveFoldable`, and :extension:`DeriveTraversable`, see
-:ghc-wiki:`this wiki page <commentary/compiler/derive-functor>`.
-
-.. _deriving-data:
-
-Deriving ``Data`` instances
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-.. extension:: DeriveDataTypeable
-    :shortdesc: Enable deriving for the ``Data`` class.
-       Implied by (deprecated) ``AutoDeriveTypeable``.
-
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Enable automatic deriving of instances for the ``Data`` typeclass
-
-.. _deriving-typeable:
-
-Deriving ``Typeable`` instances
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-The class ``Typeable`` is very special:
-
--  ``Typeable`` is kind-polymorphic (see :ref:`kind-polymorphism`).
-
--  GHC has a custom solver for discharging constraints that involve
-   class ``Typeable``, and handwritten instances are forbidden. This
-   ensures that the programmer cannot subvert the type system by writing
-   bogus instances.
-
--  Derived instances of ``Typeable`` may be declared if the
-   :extension:`DeriveDataTypeable` extension is enabled, but they are ignored,
-   and they may be reported as an error in a later version of the compiler.
-
--  The rules for solving ``Typeable`` constraints are as follows:
-
-   -  A concrete type constructor applied to some types. ::
-
-          instance (Typeable t1, .., Typeable t_n) =>
-            Typeable (T t1 .. t_n)
-
-      This rule works for any concrete type constructor, including type
-      constructors with polymorphic kinds. The only restriction is that
-      if the type constructor has a polymorphic kind, then it has to be
-      applied to all of its kinds parameters, and these kinds need to be
-      concrete (i.e., they cannot mention kind variables).
-
-   -  A type variable applied to some types::
-
-          instance (Typeable f, Typeable t1, .., Typeable t_n) =>
-            Typeable (f t1 .. t_n)
-
-   -  A concrete type literal.::
-
-          instance Typeable 0       -- Type natural literals
-          instance Typeable "Hello" -- Type-level symbols
-
-.. _deriving-lift:
-
-Deriving ``Lift`` instances
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-.. extension:: DeriveLift
-    :shortdesc: Enable deriving for the Lift class
-
-    :since: 8.0.1
-
-    Enable automatic deriving of instances for the ``Lift`` typeclass for
-    Template Haskell.
-
-The class ``Lift``, unlike other derivable classes, lives in
-``template-haskell`` instead of ``base``. Having a data type be an instance of
-``Lift`` permits its values to be promoted to Template Haskell expressions (of
-type ``ExpQ`` and ``TExpQ a``), which can then be spliced into Haskell source
-code.
-
-Here is an example of how one can derive ``Lift``:
-
-::
-
-    {-# LANGUAGE DeriveLift #-}
-    module Bar where
-
-    import Language.Haskell.TH.Syntax
-
-    data Foo a = Foo a | a :^: a deriving Lift
-
-    {-
-    instance (Lift a) => Lift (Foo a) where
-        lift (Foo a) = [| Foo a |]
-        lift ((:^:) u v) = [| (:^:) u v |]
-
-        liftTyped (Foo a) = [|| Foo a ||]
-        liftTyped ((:^:) u v) = [|| (:^:) u v ||]
-    -}
-
-    -----
-    {-# LANGUAGE TemplateHaskell #-}
-    module Baz where
-
-    import Bar
-    import Language.Haskell.TH.Lift
-
-    foo :: Foo String
-    foo = $(lift $ Foo "foo")
-
-    fooExp :: Lift a => Foo a -> Q Exp
-    fooExp f = [| f |]
-
-Note that the ``Lift`` typeclass takes advantage of :ref:`runtime-rep` in order
-to support instances involving unboxed types. This means :extension:`DeriveLift`
-also works for these types:
-
-::
-
-    {-# LANGUAGE DeriveLift, MagicHash #-}
-    module Unboxed where
-
-    import GHC.Exts
-    import Language.Haskell.TH.Syntax
-
-    data IntHash = IntHash Int# deriving Lift
-
-    {-
-    instance Lift IntHash where
-        lift (IntHash i) = [| IntHash i |]
-        liftTyped (IntHash i) = [|| IntHash i ||]
-    -}
-
-
-.. _newtype-deriving:
-
-Generalised derived instances for newtypes
-------------------------------------------
-
-.. extension:: GeneralisedNewtypeDeriving
-               GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving
-    :shortdesc: Enable newtype deriving.
-
-    :since: 6.8.1. British spelling since 8.6.1.
-
-    Enable GHC's cunning generalised deriving mechanism for ``newtype``\s
-
-When you define an abstract type using ``newtype``, you may want the new
-type to inherit some instances from its representation. In Haskell 98,
-you can inherit instances of ``Eq``, ``Ord``, ``Enum`` and ``Bounded``
-by deriving them, but for any other classes you have to write an
-explicit instance declaration. For example, if you define ::
-
-      newtype Dollars = Dollars Int
-
-and you want to use arithmetic on ``Dollars``, you have to explicitly
-define an instance of ``Num``: ::
-
-      instance Num Dollars where
-        Dollars a + Dollars b = Dollars (a+b)
-        ...
-
-All the instance does is apply and remove the ``newtype`` constructor.
-It is particularly galling that, since the constructor doesn't appear at
-run-time, this instance declaration defines a dictionary which is
-*wholly equivalent* to the ``Int`` dictionary, only slower!
-
-:extension:`DerivingVia` (see :ref:`deriving-via`) is a generalization of
-this idea.
-
-.. _generalized-newtype-deriving:
-
-Generalising the deriving clause
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-GHC now permits such instances to be derived instead, using the extension
-:extension:`GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving`, so one can write ::
-
-      newtype Dollars = Dollars { getDollars :: Int } deriving (Eq,Show,Num)
-
-and the implementation uses the *same* ``Num`` dictionary for
-``Dollars`` as for ``Int``. In other words, GHC will generate something that
-resembles the following code ::
-
-      instance Num Int => Num Dollars
-
-and then attempt to simplify the ``Num Int`` context as much as possible.
-GHC knows that there is a ``Num Int`` instance in scope, so it is able to
-discharge the ``Num Int`` constraint, leaving the code that GHC actually
-generates ::
-
-      instance Num Dollars
-
-One can think of this instance being implemented with the same code as the
-``Num Int`` instance, but with ``Dollars`` and ``getDollars`` added wherever
-necessary in order to make it typecheck. (In practice, GHC uses a somewhat
-different approach to code generation. See the :ref:`precise-gnd-specification`
-section below for more details.)
-
-We can also derive instances of constructor classes in a similar way.
-For example, suppose we have implemented state and failure monad
-transformers, such that ::
-
-      instance Monad m => Monad (State s m)
-      instance Monad m => Monad (Failure m)
-
-In Haskell 98, we can define a parsing monad by ::
-
-      type Parser tok m a = State [tok] (Failure m) a
-
-which is automatically a monad thanks to the instance declarations
-above. With the extension, we can make the parser type abstract, without
-needing to write an instance of class ``Monad``, via ::
-
-      newtype Parser tok m a = Parser (State [tok] (Failure m) a)
-                             deriving Monad
-
-In this case the derived instance declaration is of the form ::
-
-      instance Monad (State [tok] (Failure m)) => Monad (Parser tok m)
-
-Notice that, since ``Monad`` is a constructor class, the instance is a
-*partial application* of the newtype, not the entire left hand side. We
-can imagine that the type declaration is "eta-converted" to generate the
-context of the instance declaration.
-
-We can even derive instances of multi-parameter classes, provided the
-newtype is the last class parameter. In this case, a "partial
-application" of the class appears in the ``deriving`` clause. For
-example, given the class ::
-
-      class StateMonad s m | m -> s where ...
-      instance Monad m => StateMonad s (State s m) where ...
-
-then we can derive an instance of ``StateMonad`` for ``Parser`` by ::
-
-      newtype Parser tok m a = Parser (State [tok] (Failure m) a)
-                             deriving (Monad, StateMonad [tok])
-
-The derived instance is obtained by completing the application of the
-class to the new type: ::
-
-      instance StateMonad [tok] (State [tok] (Failure m)) =>
-               StateMonad [tok] (Parser tok m)
-
-As a result of this extension, all derived instances in newtype
-declarations are treated uniformly (and implemented just by reusing the
-dictionary for the representation type), *except* ``Show`` and ``Read``,
-which really behave differently for the newtype and its representation.
-
-.. note::
-
-    It is sometimes necessary to enable additional language extensions when
-    deriving instances via :extension:`GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving`. For instance,
-    consider a simple class and instance using :extension:`UnboxedTuples`
-    syntax: ::
-
-        {-# LANGUAGE UnboxedTuples #-}
-
-        module Lib where
-
-        class AClass a where
-          aMethod :: a -> (# Int, a #)
-
-        instance AClass Int where
-          aMethod x = (# x, x #)
-
-    The following will fail with an "Illegal unboxed tuple" error, since the
-    derived instance produced by the compiler makes use of unboxed tuple syntax,
-    ::
-
-        {-# LANGUAGE GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving #-}
-
-        import Lib
-
-        newtype Int' = Int' Int
-                     deriving (AClass)
-
-    However, enabling the :extension:`UnboxedTuples` extension allows the module
-    to compile. Similar errors may occur with a variety of extensions,
-    including:
-
-      * :extension:`UnboxedTuples`
-      * :extension:`PolyKinds`
-      * :extension:`MultiParamTypeClasses`
-      * :extension:`FlexibleContexts`
-
-.. _precise-gnd-specification:
-
-A more precise specification
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-A derived instance is derived only for declarations of these forms
-(after expansion of any type synonyms) ::
-
-      newtype T v1..vn                   = MkT (t vk+1..vn) deriving (C t1..tj)
-      newtype instance T s1..sk vk+1..vn = MkT (t vk+1..vn) deriving (C t1..tj)
-
-where
-
--  ``v1..vn`` are type variables, and ``t``, ``s1..sk``, ``t1..tj`` are
-   types.
-
--  The ``(C t1..tj)`` is a partial applications of the class ``C``,
-   where the arity of ``C`` is exactly ``j+1``. That is, ``C`` lacks
-   exactly one type argument.
-
--  ``k`` is chosen so that ``C t1..tj (T v1...vk)`` is well-kinded. (Or,
-   in the case of a ``data instance``, so that ``C t1..tj (T s1..sk)``
-   is well kinded.)
-
--  The type ``t`` is an arbitrary type.
-
--  The type variables ``vk+1...vn`` do not occur in the types ``t``,
-   ``s1..sk``, or ``t1..tj``.
-
--  ``C`` is not ``Read``, ``Show``, ``Typeable``, or ``Data``. These
-   classes should not "look through" the type or its constructor. You
-   can still derive these classes for a newtype, but it happens in the
-   usual way, not via this new mechanism. Confer with
-   :ref:`default-deriving-strategy`.
-
--  It is safe to coerce each of the methods of ``C``. That is, the
-   missing last argument to ``C`` is not used at a nominal role in any
-   of the ``C``'s methods. (See :ref:`roles`.)
-
-- ``C`` is allowed to have associated type families, provided they meet the
-  requirements laid out in the section on :ref:`GND and associated types
-  <gnd-and-associated-types>`.
-
-Then the derived instance declaration is of the form ::
-
-      instance C t1..tj t => C t1..tj (T v1...vk)
-
-Note that if ``C`` does not contain any class methods, the instance context
-is wholly unnecessary, and as such GHC will instead generate: ::
-
-      instance C t1..tj (T v1..vk)
-
-As an example which does *not* work, consider ::
-
-      newtype NonMonad m s = NonMonad (State s m s) deriving Monad
-
-Here we cannot derive the instance ::
-
-      instance Monad (State s m) => Monad (NonMonad m)
-
-because the type variable ``s`` occurs in ``State s m``, and so cannot
-be "eta-converted" away. It is a good thing that this ``deriving``
-clause is rejected, because ``NonMonad m`` is not, in fact, a monad ---
-for the same reason. Try defining ``>>=`` with the correct type: you
-won't be able to.
-
-Notice also that the *order* of class parameters becomes important,
-since we can only derive instances for the last one. If the
-``StateMonad`` class above were instead defined as ::
-
-      class StateMonad m s | m -> s where ...
-
-then we would not have been able to derive an instance for the
-``Parser`` type above. We hypothesise that multi-parameter classes
-usually have one "main" parameter for which deriving new instances is
-most interesting.
-
-Lastly, all of this applies only for classes other than ``Read``,
-``Show``, ``Typeable``, and ``Data``, for which the stock derivation
-applies (section 4.3.3. of the Haskell Report). (For the standard
-classes ``Eq``, ``Ord``, ``Ix``, and ``Bounded`` it is immaterial
-whether the stock method is used or the one described here.)
-
-.. _gnd-and-associated-types:
-
-Associated type families
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-:extension:`GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving` also works for some type classes with
-associated type families. Here is an example: ::
-
-      class HasRing a where
-        type Ring a
-
-      newtype L1Norm a = L1Norm a
-        deriving HasRing
-
-The derived ``HasRing`` instance would look like ::
-
-      instance HasRing (L1Norm a) where
-        type Ring (L1Norm a) = Ring a
-
-To be precise, if the class being derived is of the form ::
-
-      class C c_1 c_2 ... c_m where
-        type T1 t1_1 t1_2 ... t1_n
-        ...
-        type Tk tk_1 tk_2 ... tk_p
-
-and the newtype is of the form ::
-
-      newtype N n_1 n_2 ... n_q = MkN <rep-type>
-
-then you can derive a ``C c_1 c_2 ... c_(m-1)`` instance for
-``N n_1 n_2 ... n_q``, provided that:
-
-- The type parameter ``c_m`` occurs once in each of the type variables of
-  ``T1`` through ``Tk``. Imagine a class where this condition didn't hold.
-  For example: ::
-
-      class Bad a b where
-        type B a
-
-      instance Bad Int a where
-        type B Int = Char
-
-      newtype Foo a = Foo a
-        deriving (Bad Int)
-
-  For the derived ``Bad Int`` instance, GHC would need to generate something
-  like this: ::
-
-      instance Bad Int (Foo a) where
-        type B Int = B ???
-
-  Now we're stuck, since we have no way to refer to ``a`` on the right-hand
-  side of the ``B`` family instance, so this instance doesn't really make sense
-  in a :extension:`GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving` setting.
-
-- ``C`` does not have any associated data families (only type families). To
-  see why data families are forbidden, imagine the following scenario: ::
-
-      class Ex a where
-        data D a
-
-      instance Ex Int where
-        data D Int = DInt Bool
-
-      newtype Age = MkAge Int deriving Ex
-
-  For the derived ``Ex`` instance, GHC would need to generate something like
-  this: ::
-
-      instance Ex Age where
-        data D Age = ???
-
-  But it is not clear what GHC would fill in for ``???``, as each data family
-  instance must generate fresh data constructors.
-
-If both of these conditions are met, GHC will generate this instance: ::
-
-      instance C c_1 c_2 ... c_(m-1) <rep-type> =>
-               C c_1 c_2 ... c_(m-1) (N n_1 n_2 ... n_q) where
-        type T1 t1_1 t1_2 ... (N n_1 n_2 ... n_q) ... t1_n
-           = T1 t1_1 t1_2 ... <rep-type>          ... t1_n
-        ...
-        type Tk tk_1 tk_2 ... (N n_1 n_2 ... n_q) ... tk_p
-           = Tk tk_1 tk_2 ... <rep-type>          ... tk_p
-
-Again, if ``C`` contains no class methods, the instance context will be
-redundant, so GHC will instead generate
-``instance C c_1 c_2 ... c_(m-1) (N n_1 n_2 ... n_q)``.
-
-Beware that in some cases, you may need to enable the
-:extension:`UndecidableInstances` extension in order to use this feature.
-Here's a pathological case that illustrates why this might happen: ::
-
-      class C a where
-        type T a
-
-      newtype Loop = MkLoop Loop
-        deriving C
-
-This will generate the derived instance: ::
-
-      instance C Loop where
-        type T Loop = T Loop
-
-Here, it is evident that attempting to use the type ``T Loop`` will throw the
-typechecker into an infinite loop, as its definition recurses endlessly. In
-other cases, you might need to enable :extension:`UndecidableInstances` even
-if the generated code won't put the typechecker into a loop. For example: ::
-
-      instance C Int where
-        type C Int = Int
-
-      newtype MyInt = MyInt Int
-        deriving C
-
-This will generate the derived instance: ::
-
-      instance C MyInt where
-        type T MyInt = T Int
-
-Although typechecking ``T MyInt`` will terminate, GHC's termination checker
-isn't sophisticated enough to determine this, so you'll need to enable
-:extension:`UndecidableInstances` in order to use this derived instance. If
-you do go down this route, make sure you can convince yourself that all of
-the type family instances you're deriving will eventually terminate if used!
-
-Note that :extension:`DerivingVia` (see :ref:`deriving-via`) uses essentially
-the same specification to derive instances of associated type families as well
-(except that it uses the ``via`` type instead of the underlying ``rep-type``
-of a newtype).
-
-.. _derive-any-class:
-
-Deriving any other class
-------------------------
-
-.. extension:: DeriveAnyClass
-    :shortdesc: Enable deriving for any class.
-
-    :since: 7.10.1
-
-    Allow use of any typeclass in ``deriving`` clauses.
-
-With :extension:`DeriveAnyClass` you can derive any other class. The compiler
-will simply generate an instance declaration with no explicitly-defined
-methods.
-This is
-mostly useful in classes whose `minimal set <#minimal-pragma>`__ is
-empty, and especially when writing
-`generic functions <#generic-programming>`__.
-
-As an example, consider a simple pretty-printer class ``SPretty``, which outputs
-pretty strings: ::
-
-    {-# LANGUAGE DefaultSignatures, DeriveAnyClass #-}
-
-    class SPretty a where
-      sPpr :: a -> String
-      default sPpr :: Show a => a -> String
-      sPpr = show
-
-If a user does not provide a manual implementation for ``sPpr``, then it will
-default to ``show``. Now we can leverage the :extension:`DeriveAnyClass` extension to
-easily implement a ``SPretty`` instance for a new data type: ::
-
-    data Foo = Foo deriving (Show, SPretty)
-
-The above code is equivalent to: ::
-
-    data Foo = Foo deriving Show
-    instance SPretty Foo
-
-That is, an ``SPretty Foo`` instance will be created with empty implementations
-for all methods. Since we are using :extension:`DefaultSignatures` in this example, a
-default implementation of ``sPpr`` is filled in automatically.
-
-Note the following details
-
-- In case you try to derive some
-  class on a newtype, and :extension:`GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving` is also on,
-  :extension:`DeriveAnyClass` takes precedence.
-
-- The instance context is determined by the type signatures of the derived
-  class's methods. For instance, if the class is: ::
-
-    class Foo a where
-      bar :: a -> String
-      default bar :: Show a => a -> String
-      bar = show
-
-      baz :: a -> a -> Bool
-      default baz :: Ord a => a -> a -> Bool
-      baz x y = compare x y == EQ
-
-  And you attempt to derive it using :extension:`DeriveAnyClass`: ::
-
-    instance Eq   a => Eq   (Option a) where ...
-    instance Ord  a => Ord  (Option a) where ...
-    instance Show a => Show (Option a) where ...
-
-    data Option a = None | Some a deriving Foo
-
-  Then the derived ``Foo`` instance will be: ::
-
-    instance (Show a, Ord a) => Foo (Option a)
-
-  Since the default type signatures for ``bar`` and ``baz`` require ``Show a``
-  and ``Ord a`` constraints, respectively.
-
-  Constraints on the non-default type signatures can play a role in inferring
-  the instance context as well. For example, if you have this class: ::
-
-    class HigherEq f where
-      (==#) :: f a -> f a -> Bool
-      default (==#) :: Eq (f a) => f a -> f a -> Bool
-      x ==# y = (x == y)
-
-  And you tried to derive an instance for it: ::
-
-    instance Eq a => Eq (Option a) where ...
-    data Option a = None | Some a deriving HigherEq
-
-  Then it will fail with an error to the effect of: ::
-
-    No instance for (Eq a)
-        arising from the 'deriving' clause of a data type declaration
-
-  That is because we require an ``Eq (Option a)`` instance from the default
-  type signature for ``(==#)``, which in turn requires an ``Eq a`` instance,
-  which we don't have in scope. But if you tweak the definition of
-  ``HigherEq`` slightly: ::
-
-    class HigherEq f where
-      (==#) :: Eq a => f a -> f a -> Bool
-      default (==#) :: Eq (f a) => f a -> f a -> Bool
-      x ==# y = (x == y)
-
-  Then it becomes possible to derive a ``HigherEq Option`` instance. Note that
-  the only difference is that now the non-default type signature for ``(==#)``
-  brings in an ``Eq a`` constraint. Constraints from non-default type
-  signatures never appear in the derived instance context itself, but they can
-  be used to discharge obligations that are demanded by the default type
-  signatures. In the example above, the default type signature demanded an
-  ``Eq a`` instance, and the non-default signature was able to satisfy that
-  request, so the derived instance is simply: ::
-
-    instance HigherEq Option
-
-- :extension:`DeriveAnyClass` can be used with partially applied classes,
-  such as ::
-
-    data T a = MKT a deriving( D Int )
-
-  which generates ::
-
-    instance D Int a => D Int (T a) where {}
-
-- :extension:`DeriveAnyClass` can be used to fill in default instances for
-  associated type families: ::
-
-    {-# LANGUAGE DeriveAnyClass, TypeFamilies #-}
-
-    class Sizable a where
-      type Size a
-      type Size a = Int
-
-    data Bar = Bar deriving Sizable
-
-    doubleBarSize :: Size Bar -> Size Bar
-    doubleBarSize s = 2*s
-
-  The ``deriving( Sizable )`` is equivalent to saying ::
-
-    instance Sizeable Bar where {}
-
-  and then the normal rules for filling in associated types from the
-  default will apply, making ``Size Bar`` equal to ``Int``.
-
-.. _deriving-strategies:
-
-Deriving strategies
--------------------
-
-.. extension:: DerivingStrategies
-    :shortdesc: Enables deriving strategies.
-
-    :since: 8.2.1
-
-    Allow multiple ``deriving``, each optionally qualified with a *strategy*.
-
-In most scenarios, every ``deriving`` statement generates a typeclass instance
-in an unambiguous fashion. There is a corner case, however, where
-simultaneously enabling both the :extension:`GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving` and
-:extension:`DeriveAnyClass` extensions can make deriving become ambiguous.
-Consider the following example ::
-
-    {-# LANGUAGE DeriveAnyClass, GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving #-}
-    newtype Foo = MkFoo Bar deriving C
-
-One could either pick the ``DeriveAnyClass`` approach to deriving ``C`` or the
-``GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving`` approach to deriving ``C``, both of which would
-be equally as valid. GHC defaults to favoring ``DeriveAnyClass`` in such a
-dispute, but this is not a satisfying solution, since that leaves users unable
-to use both language extensions in a single module.
-
-To make this more robust, GHC has a notion of deriving strategies, which allow
-the user to explicitly request which approach to use when deriving an instance.
-To enable this feature, one must enable the :extension:`DerivingStrategies`
-language extension. A deriving strategy can be specified in a deriving
-clause ::
-
-    newtype Foo = MkFoo Bar
-      deriving newtype C
-
-Or in a standalone deriving declaration ::
-
-    deriving anyclass instance C Foo
-
-:extension:`DerivingStrategies` also allows the use of multiple deriving
-clauses per data declaration so that a user can derive some instance with
-one deriving strategy and other instances with another deriving strategy.
-For example ::
-
-    newtype Baz = Baz Quux
-      deriving          (Eq, Ord)
-      deriving stock    (Read, Show)
-      deriving newtype  (Num, Floating)
-      deriving anyclass C
-
-Currently, the deriving strategies are:
-
-- ``stock``: Have GHC implement a "standard" instance for a data type,
-  if possible (e.g., ``Eq``, ``Ord``, ``Generic``, ``Data``, ``Functor``, etc.)
-
-- ``anyclass``: Use :extension:`DeriveAnyClass` (see :ref:`derive-any-class`)
-
-- ``newtype``: Use :extension:`GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving`
-               (see :ref:`newtype-deriving`)
-
-- ``via``: Use :extension:`DerivingVia` (see :ref:`deriving-via`)
-
-.. _default-deriving-strategy:
-
-Default deriving strategy
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-If an explicit deriving strategy is not given, multiple strategies may apply.
-In that case, GHC chooses the strategy as follows:
-
-1. Stock type classes, i.e. those specified in the report and those enabled by
-   `language extensions <#deriving-extra>`__, are derived using the ``stock``
-   strategy, with the following exception:
-
-   * For newtypes, ``Eq``, ``Ord``, ``Ix`` and ``Bounded`` are always derived
-     using the ``newtype`` strategy, even without
-     ``GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving`` enabled. (There should be no observable
-     difference to instances derived using the stock strategy.)
-
-   * Also for newtypes, ``Functor``, ``Foldable`` and ``Enum`` are derived
-     using the ``newtype`` strategy if ``GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving`` is
-     enabled and the derivation succeeds.
-
-2. For other any type class:
-
-   1. When :extension:`DeriveAnyClass` is enabled, use ``anyclass``.
-
-   2. When :extension:`GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving` is enabled and we are
-      deriving for a newtype, then use ``newtype``.
-
-   If both rules apply to a deriving clause, then ``anyclass`` is used and the
-   user is warned about the ambiguity. The warning can be avoided by explicitly
-   stating the desired deriving strategy.
-
-.. _deriving-via:
-
-Deriving via
-------------
-
-.. extension:: DerivingVia
-    :shortdesc: Enable deriving instances ``via`` types of the same runtime
-        representation.
-        Implies :extension:`DerivingStrategies`.
-
-    :implies: :extension:`DerivingStrategies`
-
-    :since: 8.6.1
-
-This allows ``deriving`` a class instance for a type by specifying
-another type of equal runtime representation (such that there exists a
-``Coercible`` instance between the two: see :ref:`coercible`) that is
-already an instance of the that class.
-
-:extension:`DerivingVia` is indicated by the use of the ``via``
-deriving strategy. ``via`` requires specifying another type (the ``via`` type)
-to ``coerce`` through. For example, this code: ::
-
-    {-# LANGUAGE DerivingVia #-}
-
-    import Numeric
-
-    newtype Hex a = Hex a
-
-    instance (Integral a, Show a) => Show (Hex a) where
-      show (Hex a) = "0x" ++ showHex a ""
-
-    newtype Unicode = U Int
-      deriving Show
-        via (Hex Int)
-
-    -- >>> euroSign
-    -- 0x20ac
-    euroSign :: Unicode
-    euroSign = U 0x20ac
-
-Generates the following instance ::
-
-    instance Show Unicode where
-      show :: Unicode -> String
-      show = Data.Coerce.coerce
-        @(Hex Int -> String)
-        @(Unicode -> String)
-        show
-
-This extension generalizes :extension:`GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving`. To
-derive ``Num Unicode`` with GND (``deriving newtype Num``) it must
-reuse the ``Num Int`` instance. With ``DerivingVia``, we can explicitly
-specify the representation type ``Int``: ::
-
-    newtype Unicode = U Int
-      deriving Num
-        via Int
-
-      deriving Show
-        via (Hex Int)
-
-    euroSign :: Unicode
-    euroSign = 0x20ac
-
-Code duplication is common in instance declarations. A familiar
-pattern is lifting operations over an ``Applicative`` functor.
-Instead of having catch-all instances for ``f a`` which overlap
-with all other such instances, like so: ::
-
-    instance (Applicative f, Semigroup a) => Semigroup (f a) ..
-    instance (Applicative f, Monoid    a) => Monoid    (f a) ..
-
-We can instead create a newtype ``App``
-(where ``App f a`` and ``f a`` are represented the same in memory)
-and use :extension:`DerivingVia` to explicitly enable uses of this
-pattern: ::
-
-    {-# LANGUAGE DerivingVia, DeriveFunctor, GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving #-}
-
-    import Control.Applicative
-
-    newtype App f a = App (f a) deriving newtype (Functor, Applicative)
-
-    instance (Applicative f, Semigroup a) => Semigroup (App f a) where
-      (<>) = liftA2 (<>)
-
-    instance (Applicative f, Monoid a) => Monoid (App f a) where
-      mempty = pure mempty
-
-    data Pair a = MkPair a a
-      deriving stock
-        Functor
-
-      deriving (Semigroup, Monoid)
-        via (App Pair a)
-
-    instance Applicative Pair where
-      pure a = MkPair a a
-
-      MkPair f g <*> MkPair a b = MkPair (f a) (g b)
-
-Note that the ``via`` type does not have to be a ``newtype``.
-The only restriction is that it is coercible with the
-original data type. This means there can be arbitrary nesting of newtypes,
-as in the following example: ::
-
-    newtype Kleisli m a b = (a -> m b)
-      deriving (Semigroup, Monoid)
-        via (a -> App m b)
-
-Here we make use of the ``Monoid ((->) a)`` instance.
-
-When used in combination with :extension:`StandaloneDeriving` we swap the order
-for the instance we base our derivation on and the instance we define e.g.: ::
-
-  deriving via (a -> App m b) instance Monoid (Kleisli m a b)
-
-
-.. _pattern-synonyms:
-
-Pattern synonyms
-================
-
-.. extension:: PatternSynonyms
-    :shortdesc: Enable pattern synonyms.
-
-    :since: 7.8.1
-
-    Allow the definition of pattern synonyms.
-
-Pattern synonyms are enabled by the language extension :extension:`PatternSynonyms`, which is
-required for defining them, but *not* for using them. More information and
-examples of pattern synonyms can be found on the :ghc-wiki:`Wiki page <pattern-synonyms>`.
-
-Pattern synonyms enable giving names to parametrized pattern schemes.
-They can also be thought of as abstract constructors that don't have a
-bearing on data representation. For example, in a programming language
-implementation, we might represent types of the language as follows: ::
-
-    data Type = App String [Type]
-
-Here are some examples of using said representation. Consider a few
-types of the ``Type`` universe encoded like this: ::
-
-      App "->" [t1, t2]          -- t1 -> t2
-      App "Int" []               -- Int
-      App "Maybe" [App "Int" []] -- Maybe Int
-
-This representation is very generic in that no types are given special
-treatment. However, some functions might need to handle some known types
-specially, for example the following two functions collect all argument
-types of (nested) arrow types, and recognize the ``Int`` type,
-respectively: ::
-
-      collectArgs :: Type -> [Type]
-      collectArgs (App "->" [t1, t2]) = t1 : collectArgs t2
-      collectArgs _                   = []
-
-      isInt :: Type -> Bool
-      isInt (App "Int" []) = True
-      isInt _              = False
-
-Matching on ``App`` directly is both hard to read and error prone to
-write. And the situation is even worse when the matching is nested: ::
-
-      isIntEndo :: Type -> Bool
-      isIntEndo (App "->" [App "Int" [], App "Int" []]) = True
-      isIntEndo _                                       = False
-
-Pattern synonyms permit abstracting from the representation to expose
-matchers that behave in a constructor-like manner with respect to
-pattern matching. We can create pattern synonyms for the known types we
-care about, without committing the representation to them (note that
-these don't have to be defined in the same module as the ``Type`` type): ::
-
-      pattern Arrow t1 t2 = App "->"    [t1, t2]
-      pattern Int         = App "Int"   []
-      pattern Maybe t     = App "Maybe" [t]
-
-Which enables us to rewrite our functions in a much cleaner style: ::
-
-      collectArgs :: Type -> [Type]
-      collectArgs (Arrow t1 t2) = t1 : collectArgs t2
-      collectArgs _             = []
-
-      isInt :: Type -> Bool
-      isInt Int = True
-      isInt _   = False
-
-      isIntEndo :: Type -> Bool
-      isIntEndo (Arrow Int Int) = True
-      isIntEndo _               = False
-
-In general there are three kinds of pattern synonyms. Unidirectional,
-bidirectional and explicitly bidirectional. The examples given so far are
-examples of bidirectional pattern synonyms. A bidirectional synonym
-behaves the same as an ordinary data constructor. We can use it in a pattern
-context to deconstruct values and in an expression context to construct values.
-For example, we can construct the value `intEndo` using the pattern synonyms
-`Arrow` and `Int` as defined previously. ::
-
-      intEndo :: Type
-      intEndo = Arrow Int Int
-
-This example is equivalent to the much more complicated construction if we had
-directly used the `Type` constructors. ::
-
-      intEndo :: Type
-      intEndo = App "->" [App "Int" [], App "Int" []]
-
-
-Unidirectional synonyms can only be used in a pattern context and are
-defined as follows:
-
-
-::
-
-      pattern Head x <- x:xs
-
-In this case, ``Head`` ⟨x⟩ cannot be used in expressions, only patterns,
-since it wouldn't specify a value for the ⟨xs⟩ on the right-hand side. However,
-we can define an explicitly bidirectional pattern synonym by separately
-specifying how to construct and deconstruct a type. The syntax for
-doing this is as follows:
-
-::
-
-      pattern HeadC x <- x:xs where
-        HeadC x = [x]
-
-We can then use ``HeadC`` in both expression and pattern contexts. In a pattern
-context it will match the head of any list with length at least one. In an
-expression context it will construct a singleton list.
-
-Explicitly bidirectional pattern synonyms offer greater flexibility than
-implicitly bidirectional ones in terms of the syntax that is permitted. For
-instance, the following is not a legal implicitly bidirectional pattern
-synonym: ::
-
-      pattern StrictJust a = Just !a
-
-This is illegal because the use of :extension:`BangPatterns` on the right-hand
-sides prevents it from being a well formed expression. However, constructing a
-strict pattern synonym is quite possible with an explicitly bidirectional
-pattern synonym: ::
-
-      pattern StrictJust a <- Just !a where
-        StrictJust !a = Just a
-
-Constructing an explicitly bidirectional pattern synonym also:
-
-- can create different data constructors from the underlying data type,
-  not just the one appearing in the pattern match;
-
-- can call any functions or conditional logic, especially validation,
-  of course providing it constructs a result of the right type;
-
-- can use guards on the lhs of the ``=``;
-
-- can have multiple equations.
-
-For example: ::
-
-      data PosNeg = Pos Int | Neg Int
-      pattern Smarter{ nonneg } <- Pos nonneg  where
-        Smarter x = if x >= 0 then (Pos x) else (Neg x)
-
-Or using guards: ::
-
-      pattern Smarter{ nonneg } <- Pos nonneg  where
-        Smarter x | x >= 0    = (Pos x)
-                  | otherwise = (Neg x)
-
-There is an extensive Haskell folk art of `smart constructors
-<https://wiki.haskell.org/Smart_constructor>`_,
-essentially functions that wrap validation around a constructor,
-and avoid exposing its representation.
-The downside is that the underlying constructor can't be used as a matcher.
-Pattern synonyms can be used as genuinely smart constructors, for both validation and matching.
-
-The table below summarises where each kind of pattern synonym can be used.
-
-+---------------+----------------+---------------+---------------------------+
-| Context       | Unidirectional | Bidirectional | Explicitly Bidirectional  |
-+===============+================+===============+===========================+
-| Pattern       | Yes            | Yes           | Yes                       |
-+---------------+----------------+---------------+---------------------------+
-| Expression    | No             | Yes (Inferred)| Yes (Explicit)            |
-+---------------+----------------+---------------+---------------------------+
-
-.. _record-patsyn:
-
-Record Pattern Synonyms
------------------------
-
-It is also possible to define pattern synonyms which behave just like record
-constructors. The syntax for doing this is as follows:
-
-::
-
-      pattern Point :: Int -> Int -> (Int, Int)
-      pattern Point{x, y} = (x, y)
-
-The idea is that we can then use ``Point`` just as if we had defined a new
-datatype ``MyPoint`` with two fields ``x`` and ``y``.
-
-::
-
-    data MyPoint = Point { x :: Int, y :: Int }
-
-Whilst a normal pattern synonym can be used in two ways, there are then seven
-ways in which to use ``Point``. Precisely the ways in which a normal record
-constructor can be used.
-
-=======================================   ==================================
-Usage                                     Example
-=======================================   ==================================
-As a constructor                          ``zero = Point 0 0``
-As a constructor with record syntax       ``zero = Point { x = 0, y = 0}``
-In a pattern context                      ``isZero (Point 0 0) = True``
-In a pattern context with record syntax   ``isZero (Point { x = 0, y = 0 }``
-In a pattern context with field puns      ``getX (Point {x}) = x``
-In a record update                        ``(0, 0) { x = 1 } == (1,0)``
-Using record selectors                    ``x (0,0) == 0``
-=======================================   ==================================
-
-For a unidirectional record pattern synonym we define record selectors but do
-not allow record updates or construction.
-
-The syntax and semantics of pattern synonyms are elaborated in the
-following subsections.
-There are also lots more details in the `paper
-<https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/pattern-synonyms-Haskell16.pdf>`_.
-
-See the :ghc-wiki:`Wiki page <pattern-synonyms>` for more
-details.
-
-Syntax and scoping of pattern synonyms
---------------------------------------
-
-A pattern synonym declaration can be either unidirectional,
-bidirectional or explicitly bidirectional.
-The syntax for unidirectional pattern synonyms is: ::
-
-      pattern pat_lhs <- pat
-
-the syntax for bidirectional pattern synonyms is: ::
-
-      pattern pat_lhs = pat
-
-and the syntax for explicitly bidirectional pattern synonyms is: ::
-
-      pattern pat_lhs <- pat where
-        pat_lhs = expr                      -- lhs restricted, see below
-
-We can define either prefix, infix or record pattern synonyms by modifying
-the form of `pat_lhs`. The syntax for these is as follows:
-
-======= ============================
-Prefix  ``Name args``
-------- ----------------------------
-Infix   ``arg1 `Name` arg2``
-        or ``arg1 op arg2``
-------- ----------------------------
-Record  ``Name{arg1,arg2,...,argn}``
-======= ============================
-
-The `pat_lhs` for explicitly bidirectional construction cannot use Record syntax.
-(Because the rhs *expr* might be constructing different data constructors.)
-It can use guards with multiple equations.
-
-Pattern synonym declarations can only occur in the top level of a
-module. In particular, they are not allowed as local definitions.
-
-The variables in the left-hand side of the definition are bound by the
-pattern on the right-hand side. For bidirectional pattern
-synonyms, all the variables of the right-hand side must also occur on
-the left-hand side; also, wildcard patterns and view patterns are not
-allowed. For unidirectional and explicitly bidirectional pattern
-synonyms, there is no restriction on the right-hand side pattern.
-
-Pattern synonyms cannot be defined recursively.
-
-:ref:`complete-pragma` can be specified in order to tell
-the pattern match exhaustiveness checker that a set of pattern synonyms is
-complete.
-
-.. _patsyn-impexp:
-
-Import and export of pattern synonyms
--------------------------------------
-
-The name of the pattern synonym is in the same namespace as proper data
-constructors. Like normal data constructors, pattern synonyms can be imported
-and exported through association with a type constructor or independently.
-
-To export them on their own, in an export or import specification, you must
-prefix pattern names with the ``pattern`` keyword, e.g.: ::
-
-      module Example (pattern Zero) where
-
-      data MyNum = MkNum Int
-
-      pattern Zero :: MyNum
-      pattern Zero = MkNum 0
-
-Without the ``pattern`` prefix, ``Zero`` would be interpreted as a
-type constructor in the export list.
-
-You may also use the ``pattern`` keyword in an import/export
-specification to import or export an ordinary data constructor. For
-example: ::
-
-      import Data.Maybe( pattern Just )
-
-would bring into scope the data constructor ``Just`` from the ``Maybe``
-type, without also bringing the type constructor ``Maybe`` into scope.
-
-To bundle a pattern synonym with a type constructor, we list the pattern
-synonym in the export list of a module which exports the type constructor.
-For example, to bundle ``Zero`` with ``MyNum`` we could write the following: ::
-
-      module Example ( MyNum(Zero) ) where
-
-If a module was then to import ``MyNum`` from ``Example``, it would also import
-the pattern synonym ``Zero``.
-
-It is also possible to use the special token ``..`` in an export list to mean
-all currently bundled constructors. For example, we could write: ::
-
-      module Example ( MyNum(.., Zero) ) where
-
-in which case, ``Example`` would export the type constructor ``MyNum`` with
-the data constructor ``MkNum`` and also the pattern synonym ``Zero``.
-
-Bundled pattern synonyms are type checked to ensure that they are of the same
-type as the type constructor which they are bundled with. A pattern synonym
-``P`` can not be bundled with a type constructor ``T`` if ``P``\'s type is visibly
-incompatible with ``T``.
-
-A module which imports ``MyNum(..)`` from ``Example`` and then re-exports
-``MyNum(..)`` will also export any pattern synonyms bundled with ``MyNum`` in
-``Example``. A more complete specification can be found on the
-:ghc-wiki:`wiki. <pattern-synonyms/associating-synonyms>`
-
-
-.. _patsyn-typing:
-
-Typing of pattern synonyms
---------------------------
-
-Given a pattern synonym definition of the form ::
-
-      pattern P var1 var2 ... varN <- pat
-
-it is assigned a *pattern type* of the form ::
-
-      pattern P :: CReq => CProv => t1 -> t2 -> ... -> tN -> t
-
-where ⟨CReq⟩ and ⟨CProv⟩ are type contexts, and ⟨t1⟩, ⟨t2⟩, ..., ⟨tN⟩
-and ⟨t⟩ are types. Notice the unusual form of the type, with two
-contexts ⟨CReq⟩ and ⟨CProv⟩:
-
--  ⟨CReq⟩ are the constraints *required* to match the pattern.
-
--  ⟨CProv⟩ are the constraints *made available (provided)* by a
-   successful pattern match.
-
-For example, consider ::
-
-    data T a where
-      MkT :: (Show b) => a -> b -> T a
-
-    f1 :: (Num a, Eq a) => T a -> String
-    f1 (MkT 42 x) = show x
-
-    pattern ExNumPat :: (Num a, Eq a) => (Show b) => b -> T a
-    pattern ExNumPat x = MkT 42 x
-
-    f2 :: (Eq a, Num a) => T a -> String
-    f2 (ExNumPat x) = show x
-
-Here ``f1`` does not use pattern synonyms. To match against the numeric
-pattern ``42`` *requires* the caller to satisfy the constraints
-``(Num a, Eq a)``, so they appear in ``f1``'s type. The call to ``show``
-generates a ``(Show b)`` constraint, where ``b`` is an existentially
-type variable bound by the pattern match on ``MkT``. But the same
-pattern match also *provides* the constraint ``(Show b)`` (see ``MkT``'s
-type), and so all is well.
-
-Exactly the same reasoning applies to ``ExNumPat``: matching against
-``ExNumPat`` *requires* the constraints ``(Num a, Eq a)``, and
-*provides* the constraint ``(Show b)``.
-
-Note also the following points
-
--  In the common case where ``CProv`` is empty, (i.e., ``()``), it can be
-   omitted altogether in the above pattern type signature for ``P``.
-
--  However, if ``CProv`` is non-empty, while ``CReq`` is, the above pattern type
-   signature for ``P`` must be specified as ::
-
-     P :: () => CProv => t1 -> t2 -> .. -> tN -> t
-
--  The GHCi :ghci-cmd:`:info` command shows pattern types in this format.
-
--  You may specify an explicit *pattern signature*, as we did for
-   ``ExNumPat`` above, to specify the type of a pattern, just as you can
-   for a function. As usual, the type signature can be less polymorphic
-   than the inferred type. For example ::
-
-         -- Inferred type would be 'a -> [a]'
-         pattern SinglePair :: (a, a) -> [(a, a)]
-         pattern SinglePair x = [x]
-
-   Just like signatures on value-level bindings, pattern synonym signatures can
-   apply to more than one pattern. For instance, ::
-
-         pattern Left', Right' :: a -> Either a a
-         pattern Left' x  = Left x
-         pattern Right' x = Right x
-
--  The rules for lexically-scoped type variables (see
-   :ref:`scoped-type-variables`) apply to pattern-synonym signatures.
-   As those rules specify, only the type variables from an explicit,
-   syntactically-visible outer `forall` (the universals) scope over
-   the definition of the pattern synonym; the existentials, bound by
-   the inner forall, do not.  For example ::
-
-         data T a where
-            MkT :: Bool -> b -> (b->Int) -> a -> T a
-
-         pattern P :: forall a. forall b. b -> (b->Int) -> a -> T a
-         pattern P x y v <- MkT True x y (v::a)
-
-   Here the universal type variable `a` scopes over the definition of `P`,
-   but the existential `b` does not.  (c.f. discussion on #14998.)
-
--  For a bidirectional pattern synonym, a use of the pattern synonym as
-   an expression has the type
-
-   ::
-
-         (CReq, CProv) => t1 -> t2 -> ... -> tN -> t
-
-   So in the previous example, when used in an expression, ``ExNumPat``
-   has type
-
-   ::
-
-         ExNumPat :: (Num a, Eq a, Show b) => b -> T t
-
-   Notice that this is a tiny bit more restrictive than the expression
-   ``MkT 42 x`` which would not require ``(Eq a)``.
-
--  Consider these two pattern synonyms: ::
-
-       data S a where
-          S1 :: Bool -> S Bool
-
-       pattern P1 :: Bool -> Maybe Bool
-       pattern P1 b = Just b
-
-       pattern P2 :: () => (b ~ Bool) => Bool -> S b
-       pattern P2 b = S1 b
-
-       f :: Maybe a -> String
-       f (P1 x) = "no no no"     -- Type-incorrect
-
-       g :: S a -> String
-       g (P2 b) = "yes yes yes"  -- Fine
-
-   Pattern ``P1`` can only match against a value of type ``Maybe Bool``,
-   so function ``f`` is rejected because the type signature is
-   ``Maybe a``. (To see this, imagine expanding the pattern synonym.)
-
-   On the other hand, function ``g`` works fine, because matching
-   against ``P2`` (which wraps the GADT ``S``) provides the local
-   equality ``(a~Bool)``. If you were to give an explicit pattern
-   signature ``P2 :: Bool -> S Bool``, then ``P2`` would become less
-   polymorphic, and would behave exactly like ``P1`` so that ``g`` would
-   then be rejected.
-
-   In short, if you want GADT-like behaviour for pattern synonyms, then
-   (unlike concrete data constructors like ``S1``) you must write
-   its type with explicit provided equalities. For a concrete data
-   constructor like ``S1`` you can write its type signature as either
-   ``S1 :: Bool -> S Bool`` or ``S1 :: (b~Bool) => Bool -> S b``; the
-   two are equivalent. Not so for pattern synonyms: the two forms are
-   different, in order to distinguish the two cases above. (See
-   :ghc-ticket:`9953` for discussion of this choice.)
-
-Matching of pattern synonyms
-----------------------------
-
-A pattern synonym occurrence in a pattern is evaluated by first matching
-against the pattern synonym itself, and then on the argument patterns.
-
-More precisely, the semantics of pattern matching is given in
-`Section 3.17 of the Haskell 2010 report <https://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/haskell2010/haskellch3.html#x8-580003.17>`__.   To the informal semantics in Section 3.17.2 we add this extra rule:
-
-* If the pattern is a constructor pattern ``(P p1 ... pn)``, where ``P`` is
-  a pattern synonym defined by ``P x1 ... xn = p`` or ``P x1 ... xn <- p``, then:
-
-  (a) Match the value ``v`` against ``p``. If this match fails or diverges,
-      so does the whole (pattern synonym) match.   Otherwise the match
-      against ``p`` must bind the variables ``x1 ... xn``; let them be bound to values ``v1 ... vn``.
-
-  (b) Match ``v1`` against ``p1``, ``v2`` against ``p2`` and so on.
-      If any of these matches fail or diverge, so does the whole match.
-
-  (c) If all the matches against the ``pi`` succeed, the match succeeds,
-      binding the variables bound by the ``pi`` . (The ``xi`` are not
-      bound; they remain local to the pattern synonym declaration.)
-
-For example, in the following program, ``f`` and ``f'`` are equivalent: ::
-
-    pattern Pair x y <- [x, y]
-
-    f (Pair True True) = True
-    f _                = False
-
-    f' [x, y] | True <- x, True <- y = True
-    f' _                              = False
-
-Note that the strictness of ``f`` differs from that of ``g`` defined
-below:
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-    g [True, True] = True
-    g _            = False
-
-    *Main> f (False:undefined)
-    *** Exception: Prelude.undefined
-    *Main> g (False:undefined)
-    False
-
-.. _type-class-extensions:
-
-Class and instances declarations
-================================
-
-.. _multi-param-type-classes:
-
-Class declarations
-------------------
-
-This section, and the next one, documents GHC's type-class extensions.
-There's lots of background in the paper `Type classes: exploring the
-design
-space <http://research.microsoft.com/~simonpj/Papers/type-class-design-space/>`__
-(Simon Peyton Jones, Mark Jones, Erik Meijer).
-
-Multi-parameter type classes
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-.. extension:: MultiParamTypeClasses
-    :shortdesc: Enable multi parameter type classes.
-         Implied by :extension:`FunctionalDependencies`.
-
-    :implies: :extension:`ConstrainedClassMethods`
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Allow the definition of typeclasses with more than one parameter.
-
-Multi-parameter type classes are permitted, with extension
-:extension:`MultiParamTypeClasses`. For example: ::
-
-      class Collection c a where
-          union :: c a -> c a -> c a
-          ...etc.
-
-.. _superclass-rules:
-
-The superclasses of a class declaration
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-.. extension:: FlexibleContexts
-    :shortdesc: Enable flexible contexts.
-
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Allow the use of complex constraints in class declaration contexts.
-
-In Haskell 98 the context of a class declaration (which introduces
-superclasses) must be simple; that is, each predicate must consist of a
-class applied to type variables. The extension :extension:`FlexibleContexts`
-(:ref:`flexible-contexts`) lifts this restriction, so that the only
-restriction on the context in a class declaration is that the class
-hierarchy must be acyclic. So these class declarations are OK: ::
-
-      class Functor (m k) => FiniteMap m k where
-        ...
-
-      class (Monad m, Monad (t m)) => Transform t m where
-        lift :: m a -> (t m) a
-
-As in Haskell 98, the class hierarchy must be acyclic. However, the
-definition of "acyclic" involves only the superclass relationships. For
-example, this is okay: ::
-
-      class C a where
-        op :: D b => a -> b -> b
-
-      class C a => D a where ...
-
-Here, ``C`` is a superclass of ``D``, but it's OK for a class operation
-``op`` of ``C`` to mention ``D``. (It would not be OK for ``D`` to be a
-superclass of ``C``.)
-
-With the extension that adds a `kind of
-constraints <#constraint-kind>`__, you can write more exotic superclass
-definitions. The superclass cycle check is even more liberal in these
-case. For example, this is OK: ::
-
-      class A cls c where
-        meth :: cls c => c -> c
-
-      class A B c => B c where
-
-A superclass context for a class ``C`` is allowed if, after expanding
-type synonyms to their right-hand-sides, and uses of classes (other than
-``C``) to their superclasses, ``C`` does not occur syntactically in the
-context.
-
-.. _class-method-types:
-
-Constrained class method types
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-.. extension:: ConstrainedClassMethods
-    :shortdesc: Enable constrained class methods.
-
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Allows the definition of further constraints on individual class methods.
-
-Haskell 98 prohibits class method types to mention constraints on the
-class type variable, thus: ::
-
-      class Seq s a where
-        fromList :: [a] -> s a
-        elem     :: Eq a => a -> s a -> Bool
-
-The type of ``elem`` is illegal in Haskell 98, because it contains the
-constraint ``Eq a``, which constrains only the class type variable (in
-this case ``a``).
-this case ``a``).  More precisely, a constraint in a class method signature is rejected if
-
-- The constraint mentions at least one type variable.  So this is allowed: ::
-
-     class C a where
-       op1 :: HasCallStack => a -> a
-       op2 :: (?x::Int) => Int -> a
-
-- All of the type variables mentioned are bound by the class declaration, and none is locally quantified.  Examples: ::
-
-     class C a where
-       op3 :: Eq a => a -> a    -- Rejected: constrains class variable only
-       op4 :: D b => a -> b     -- Accepted: constrains a locally-quantified variable `b`
-       op5 :: D (a,b) => a -> b -- Accepted: constrains a locally-quantified variable `b`
-
-
-GHC lifts this restriction with language extension
-:extension:`ConstrainedClassMethods`. The restriction is a pretty stupid one in
-the first place, so :extension:`ConstrainedClassMethods` is implied by
-:extension:`MultiParamTypeClasses`.
-
-.. _class-default-signatures:
-
-Default method signatures
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-.. extension:: DefaultSignatures
-    :shortdesc: Enable default signatures.
-
-    :since: 7.2.1
-
-    Allows the definition of default method signatures in class definitions.
-
-Haskell 98 allows you to define a default implementation when declaring
-a class: ::
-
-      class Enum a where
-        enum :: [a]
-        enum = []
-
-The type of the ``enum`` method is ``[a]``, and this is also the type of
-the default method. You can change the type of the default method by
-requiring a different context using the extension
-:extension:`DefaultSignatures`. For instance, if you have written a
-generic implementation of enumeration in a class ``GEnum`` with method
-``genum``, you can specify a default method that uses that generic
-implementation. But your default implementation can only be used if the
-constraints are satisfied, therefore you need to change the type of the
-default method ::
-
-      class Enum a where
-        enum :: [a]
-        default enum :: (Generic a, GEnum (Rep a)) => [a]
-        enum = map to genum
-
-We reuse the keyword ``default`` to signal that a signature applies to
-the default method only; when defining instances of the ``Enum`` class,
-the original type ``[a]`` of ``enum`` still applies. When giving an
-empty instance, however, the default implementation ``(map to genum)`` is
-filled-in, and type-checked with the type
-``(Generic a, GEnum (Rep a)) => [a]``.
-
-The type signature for a default method of a type class must take on the same
-form as the corresponding main method's type signature. Otherwise, the
-typechecker will reject that class's definition. By "take on the same form", we
-mean that the default type signature should differ from the main type signature
-only in their contexts. Therefore, if you have a method ``bar``: ::
-
-      class Foo a where
-        bar :: forall b. C => a -> b -> b
-
-Then a default method for ``bar`` must take on the form: ::
-
-      default bar :: forall b. C' => a -> b -> b
-
-``C`` is allowed to be different from ``C'``, but the right-hand sides of the
-type signatures must coincide. We require this because when you declare an
-empty instance for a class that uses :extension:`DefaultSignatures`, GHC
-implicitly fills in the default implementation like this: ::
-
-      instance Foo Int where
-        bar = default_bar @Int
-
-Where ``@Int`` utilizes visible type application
-(:ref:`visible-type-application`) to instantiate the ``b`` in
-``default bar :: forall b. C' => a -> b -> b``. In order for this type
-application to work, the default type signature for ``bar`` must have the same
-type variable order as the non-default signature! But there is no obligation
-for ``C`` and ``C'`` to be the same (see, for instance, the ``Enum`` example
-above, which relies on this).
-
-To further explain this example, the right-hand side of the default
-type signature for ``bar`` must be something that is alpha-equivalent to
-``forall b. a -> b -> b`` (where ``a`` is bound by the class itself, and is
-thus free in the methods' type signatures). So this would also be an acceptable
-default type signature: ::
-
-      default bar :: forall x. C' => a -> x -> x
-
-But not this (since the free variable ``a`` is in the wrong place): ::
-
-      default bar :: forall b. C' => b -> a -> b
-
-Nor this, since we can't match the type variable ``b`` with the concrete type
-``Int``: ::
-
-      default bar :: C' => a -> Int -> Int
-
-That last one deserves a special mention, however, since ``a -> Int -> Int`` is
-a straightforward instantiation of ``forall b. a -> b -> b``. You can still
-write such a default type signature, but you now must use type equalities to
-do so: ::
-
-      default bar :: forall b. (C', b ~ Int) => a -> b -> b
-
-We use default signatures to simplify generic programming in GHC
-(:ref:`generic-programming`).
-
-.. _nullary-type-classes:
-
-Nullary type classes
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-.. extension:: NullaryTypeClasses
-    :shortdesc: Deprecated, does nothing. nullary (no parameter) type
-        classes are now enabled using :extension:`MultiParamTypeClasses`.
-
-    :since: 7.8.1
-
-    Allows the use definition of type classes with no parameters. This extension
-    has been replaced by :extension:`MultiParamTypeClasses`.
-
-
-Nullary (no parameter) type classes are enabled with
-:extension:`MultiParamTypeClasses`; historically, they were enabled with the
-(now deprecated) :extension:`NullaryTypeClasses`. Since there are no available
-parameters, there can be at most one instance of a nullary class. A nullary type
-class might be used to document some assumption in a type signature (such as
-reliance on the Riemann hypothesis) or add some globally configurable settings
-in a program. For example, ::
-
-      class RiemannHypothesis where
-        assumeRH :: a -> a
-
-      -- Deterministic version of the Miller test
-      -- correctness depends on the generalised Riemann hypothesis
-      isPrime :: RiemannHypothesis => Integer -> Bool
-      isPrime n = assumeRH (...)
-
-The type signature of ``isPrime`` informs users that its correctness depends on
-an unproven conjecture. If the function is used, the user has to acknowledge the
-dependence with: ::
-
-      instance RiemannHypothesis where
-        assumeRH = id
-
-.. _functional-dependencies:
-
-Functional dependencies
------------------------
-
-.. extension:: FunctionalDependencies
-    :shortdesc: Enable functional dependencies.
-        Implies :extension:`MultiParamTypeClasses`.
-
-    :implies: :extension:`MultiParamTypeClasses`
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Allow use of functional dependencies in class declarations.
-
-Functional dependencies are implemented as described by Mark Jones in
-[Jones2000]_.
-
-Functional dependencies are introduced by a vertical bar in the syntax
-of a class declaration; e.g. ::
-
-      class (Monad m) => MonadState s m | m -> s where ...
-
-      class Foo a b c | a b -> c where ...
-
-More documentation can be found in the `Haskell Wiki
-<https://wiki.haskell.org/Functional_dependencies>`_.
-
-.. [Jones2000]
-    "`Type Classes with Functional
-    Dependencies <https://web.cecs.pdx.edu/~mpj/pubs/fundeps.html>`__",
-    Mark P. Jones, In *Proceedings of the 9th European Symposium on Programming*,
-    ESOP 2000, Berlin, Germany, March 2000, Springer-Verlag LNCS 1782, .
-
-Rules for functional dependencies
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-In a class declaration, all of the class type variables must be
-reachable (in the sense mentioned in :ref:`flexible-contexts`) from the
-free variables of each method type. For example: ::
-
-      class Coll s a where
-        empty  :: s
-        insert :: s -> a -> s
-
-is not OK, because the type of ``empty`` doesn't mention ``a``.
-Functional dependencies can make the type variable reachable: ::
-
-      class Coll s a | s -> a where
-        empty  :: s
-        insert :: s -> a -> s
-
-Alternatively ``Coll`` might be rewritten ::
-
-      class Coll s a where
-        empty  :: s a
-        insert :: s a -> a -> s a
-
-which makes the connection between the type of a collection of ``a``'s
-(namely ``(s a)``) and the element type ``a``. Occasionally this really
-doesn't work, in which case you can split the class like this: ::
-
-      class CollE s where
-        empty  :: s
-
-      class CollE s => Coll s a where
-        insert :: s -> a -> s
-
-Background on functional dependencies
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-The following description of the motivation and use of functional
-dependencies is taken from the Hugs user manual, reproduced here (with
-minor changes) by kind permission of Mark Jones.
-
-Consider the following class, intended as part of a library for
-collection types: ::
-
-       class Collects e ce where
-           empty  :: ce
-           insert :: e -> ce -> ce
-           member :: e -> ce -> Bool
-
-The type variable ``e`` used here represents the element type, while ``ce`` is
-the type of the container itself. Within this framework, we might want to define
-instances of this class for lists or characteristic functions (both of which can
-be used to represent collections of any equality type), bit sets (which can be
-used to represent collections of characters), or hash tables (which can be used
-to represent any collection whose elements have a hash function). Omitting
-standard implementation details, this would lead to the following declarations: ::
-
-       instance Eq e => Collects e [e] where ...
-       instance Eq e => Collects e (e -> Bool) where ...
-       instance Collects Char BitSet where ...
-       instance (Hashable e, Collects a ce)
-                  => Collects e (Array Int ce) where ...
-
-All this looks quite promising; we have a class and a range of
-interesting implementations. Unfortunately, there are some serious
-problems with the class declaration. First, the empty function has an
-ambiguous type: ::
-
-       empty :: Collects e ce => ce
-
-By "ambiguous" we mean that there is a type variable ``e`` that appears on
-the left of the ``=>`` symbol, but not on the right. The problem with
-this is that, according to the theoretical foundations of Haskell
-overloading, we cannot guarantee a well-defined semantics for any term
-with an ambiguous type.
-
-We can sidestep this specific problem by removing the empty member from
-the class declaration. However, although the remaining members, insert
-and member, do not have ambiguous types, we still run into problems when
-we try to use them. For example, consider the following two functions: ::
-
-       f x y = insert x . insert y
-       g     = f True 'a'
-
-for which GHC infers the following types: ::
-
-       f :: (Collects a c, Collects b c) => a -> b -> c -> c
-       g :: (Collects Bool c, Collects Char c) => c -> c
-
-Notice that the type for ``f`` allows the two parameters ``x`` and ``y`` to be
-assigned different types, even though it attempts to insert each of the
-two values, one after the other, into the same collection. If we're
-trying to model collections that contain only one type of value, then
-this is clearly an inaccurate type. Worse still, the definition for g is
-accepted, without causing a type error. As a result, the error in this
-code will not be flagged at the point where it appears. Instead, it will
-show up only when we try to use ``g``, which might even be in a different
-module.
-
-An attempt to use constructor classes
-^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-
-Faced with the problems described above, some Haskell programmers might
-be tempted to use something like the following version of the class
-declaration: ::
-
-       class Collects e c where
-          empty  :: c e
-          insert :: e -> c e -> c e
-          member :: e -> c e -> Bool
-
-The key difference here is that we abstract over the type constructor ``c``
-that is used to form the collection type ``c e``, and not over that
-collection type itself, represented by ``ce`` in the original class
-declaration. This avoids the immediate problems that we mentioned above:
-empty has type ``Collects e c => c e``, which is not ambiguous.
-
-The function ``f`` from the previous section has a more accurate type: ::
-
-       f :: (Collects e c) => e -> e -> c e -> c e
-
-The function ``g`` from the previous section is now rejected with a type
-error as we would hope because the type of ``f`` does not allow the two
-arguments to have different types. This, then, is an example of a
-multiple parameter class that does actually work quite well in practice,
-without ambiguity problems. There is, however, a catch. This version of
-the ``Collects`` class is nowhere near as general as the original class
-seemed to be: only one of the four instances for ``Collects`` given
-above can be used with this version of Collects because only one of them—the
-instance for lists—has a collection type that can be written in the form ``c
-e``, for some type constructor ``c``, and element type ``e``.
-
-Adding functional dependencies
-^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-
-To get a more useful version of the ``Collects`` class, GHC provides a
-mechanism that allows programmers to specify dependencies between the
-parameters of a multiple parameter class (For readers with an interest
-in theoretical foundations and previous work: The use of dependency
-information can be seen both as a generalisation of the proposal for
-"parametric type classes" that was put forward by Chen, Hudak, and
-Odersky, or as a special case of Mark Jones's later framework for
-"improvement" of qualified types. The underlying ideas are also
-discussed in a more theoretical and abstract setting in a manuscript
-[Jones1999]_, where they are identified as one point in a general design
-space for systems of implicit parameterisation). To start with an
-abstract example, consider a declaration such as: ::
-
-       class C a b where ...
-
-.. [Jones1999]
-    "`Exploring the Design Space for Type-based Implicit Parameterization
-    <https://web.cecs.pdx.edu/~mpj/pubs/fdtr.html>`__", Mark P. Jones, Oregon
-    Graduate Institute of Science & Technology, Technical Report, July 1999.
-
-which tells us simply that ``C`` can be thought of as a binary relation on
-types (or type constructors, depending on the kinds of ``a`` and ``b``). Extra
-clauses can be included in the definition of classes to add information
-about dependencies between parameters, as in the following examples: ::
-
-       class D a b | a -> b where ...
-       class E a b | a -> b, b -> a where ...
-
-The notation ``a -> b`` used here between the ``|`` and ``where`` symbols —
-not to be confused with a function type — indicates that the ``a``
-parameter uniquely determines the ``b`` parameter, and might be read as "``a``
-determines ``b``." Thus ``D`` is not just a relation, but actually a (partial)
-function. Similarly, from the two dependencies that are included in the
-definition of ``E``, we can see that ``E`` represents a (partial) one-to-one
-mapping between types.
-
-More generally, dependencies take the form ``x1 ... xn -> y1 ... ym``,
-where ``x1``, ..., ``xn``, and ``y1``, ..., ``yn`` are type variables with n>0 and m>=0,
-meaning that the ``y`` parameters are uniquely determined by the ``x``
-parameters. Spaces can be used as separators if more than one variable
-appears on any single side of a dependency, as in ``t -> a b``. Note
-that a class may be annotated with multiple dependencies using commas as
-separators, as in the definition of ``E`` above. Some dependencies that we
-can write in this notation are redundant, and will be rejected because
-they don't serve any useful purpose, and may instead indicate an error
-in the program. Examples of dependencies like this include ``a -> a``,
-``a -> a a``, ``a ->``, etc. There can also be some redundancy if
-multiple dependencies are given, as in ``a->b``, ``b->c``, ``a->c``, and
-in which some subset implies the remaining dependencies. Examples like
-this are not treated as errors. Note that dependencies appear only in
-class declarations, and not in any other part of the language. In
-particular, the syntax for instance declarations, class constraints, and
-types is completely unchanged.
-
-By including dependencies in a class declaration, we provide a mechanism
-for the programmer to specify each multiple parameter class more
-precisely. The compiler, on the other hand, is responsible for ensuring
-that the set of instances that are in scope at any given point in the
-program is consistent with any declared dependencies. For example, the
-following pair of instance declarations cannot appear together in the
-same scope because they violate the dependency for ``D``, even though either
-one on its own would be acceptable: ::
-
-       instance D Bool Int where ...
-       instance D Bool Char where ...
-
-Note also that the following declaration is not allowed, even by itself: ::
-
-       instance D [a] b where ...
-
-The problem here is that this instance would allow one particular choice
-of ``[a]`` to be associated with more than one choice for ``b``, which
-contradicts the dependency specified in the definition of ``D``. More
-generally, this means that, in any instance of the form: ::
-
-       instance D t s where ...
-
-for some particular types ``t`` and ``s``, the only variables that can appear in
-``s`` are the ones that appear in ``t``, and hence, if the type ``t`` is known,
-then ``s`` will be uniquely determined.
-
-The benefit of including dependency information is that it allows us to
-define more general multiple parameter classes, without ambiguity
-problems, and with the benefit of more accurate types. To illustrate
-this, we return to the collection class example, and annotate the
-original definition of ``Collects`` with a simple dependency: ::
-
-       class Collects e ce | ce -> e where
-          empty  :: ce
-          insert :: e -> ce -> ce
-          member :: e -> ce -> Bool
-
-The dependency ``ce -> e`` here specifies that the type ``e`` of elements is
-uniquely determined by the type of the collection ``ce``. Note that both
-parameters of Collects are of kind ``Type``; there are no constructor classes
-here. Note too that all of the instances of ``Collects`` that we gave earlier
-can be used together with this new definition.
-
-What about the ambiguity problems that we encountered with the original
-definition? The empty function still has type ``Collects e ce => ce``, but
-it is no longer necessary to regard that as an ambiguous type: Although
-the variable ``e`` does not appear on the right of the ``=>`` symbol, the
-dependency for class ``Collects`` tells us that it is uniquely determined by
-``ce``, which does appear on the right of the ``=>`` symbol. Hence the context
-in which empty is used can still give enough information to determine
-types for both ``ce`` and ``e``, without ambiguity. More generally, we need only
-regard a type as ambiguous if it contains a variable on the left of the
-``=>`` that is not uniquely determined (either directly or indirectly) by
-the variables on the right.
-
-Dependencies also help to produce more accurate types for user defined
-functions, and hence to provide earlier detection of errors, and less
-cluttered types for programmers to work with. Recall the previous
-definition for a function ``f``: ::
-
-       f x y = insert x y = insert x . insert y
-
-for which we originally obtained a type: ::
-
-       f :: (Collects a c, Collects b c) => a -> b -> c -> c
-
-Given the dependency information that we have for ``Collects``, however, we
-can deduce that ``a`` and ``b`` must be equal because they both appear as the
-second parameter in a ``Collects`` constraint with the same first parameter
-``c``. Hence we can infer a shorter and more accurate type for ``f``: ::
-
-       f :: (Collects a c) => a -> a -> c -> c
-
-In a similar way, the earlier definition of ``g`` will now be flagged as a
-type error.
-
-Although we have given only a few examples here, it should be clear that
-the addition of dependency information can help to make multiple
-parameter classes more useful in practice, avoiding ambiguity problems,
-and allowing more general sets of instance declarations.
-
-.. _instance-decls:
-
-Instance declarations
----------------------
-
-An instance declaration has the form ::
-
-      instance ( assertion1, ..., assertionn) => class type1 ... typem where ...
-
-The part before the "``=>``" is the *context*, while the part after the
-"``=>``" is the *head* of the instance declaration.
-
-.. _instance-resolution:
-
-Instance resolution
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-When GHC tries to resolve, say, the constraint ``C Int Bool``, it tries
-to match every instance declaration against the constraint, by
-instantiating the head of the instance declaration. Consider these
-declarations: ::
-
-      instance context1 => C Int a     where ...  -- (A)
-      instance context2 => C a   Bool  where ...  -- (B)
-
-GHC's default behaviour is that *exactly one instance must match the
-constraint it is trying to resolve*. For example, the constraint
-``C Int Bool`` matches instances (A) and (B), and hence would be
-rejected; while ``C Int Char`` matches only (A) and hence (A) is chosen.
-
-Notice that
-
--  When matching, GHC takes no account of the context of the instance
-   declaration (``context1`` etc).
-
--  It is fine for there to be a *potential* of overlap (by including
-   both declarations (A) and (B), say); an error is only reported if a
-   particular constraint matches more than one.
-
-See also :ref:`instance-overlap` for flags that loosen the instance
-resolution rules.
-
-.. _flexible-instance-head:
-
-Relaxed rules for the instance head
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-.. extension:: TypeSynonymInstances
-    :shortdesc: Enable type synonyms in instance heads.
-      Implied by :extension:`FlexibleInstances`.
-
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Allow definition of type class instances for type synonyms.
-
-.. extension:: FlexibleInstances
-    :shortdesc: Enable flexible instances.
-        Implies :extension:`TypeSynonymInstances`.
-
-    :implies: :extension:`TypeSynonymInstances`
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Allow definition of type class instances with arbitrary nested types in the
-    instance head.
-
-In Haskell 98 the head of an instance declaration must be of the form
-``C (T a1 ... an)``, where ``C`` is the class, ``T`` is a data type
-constructor, and the ``a1 ... an`` are distinct type variables. In the
-case of multi-parameter type classes, this rule applies to each
-parameter of the instance head (Arguably it should be okay if just one
-has this form and the others are type variables, but that's the rules at
-the moment).
-
-GHC relaxes this rule in two ways:
-
--  With the :extension:`TypeSynonymInstances` extension, instance heads may use type
-   synonyms. As always, using a type synonym is just shorthand for
-   writing the RHS of the type synonym definition. For example: ::
-
-         type Point a = (a,a)
-         instance C (Point a)   where ...
-
-   is legal. The instance declaration is equivalent to ::
-
-         instance C (a,a) where ...
-
-   As always, type synonyms must be fully applied. You cannot, for
-   example, write: ::
-
-         instance Monad Point where ...
-
--  The :extension:`FlexibleInstances` extension allows the head of the instance
-   declaration to mention arbitrary nested types. For example, this
-   becomes a legal instance declaration ::
-
-         instance C (Maybe Int) where ...
-
-   See also the `rules on overlap <#instance-overlap>`__.
-
-   The :extension:`FlexibleInstances` extension implies
-   :extension:`TypeSynonymInstances`.
-
-However, the instance declaration must still conform to the rules for
-instance termination: see :ref:`instance-termination`.
-
-.. _instance-rules:
-
-Relaxed rules for instance contexts
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-In Haskell 98, the class constraints in the context of the instance
-declaration must be of the form ``C a`` where ``a`` is a type variable
-that occurs in the head.
-
-The :extension:`FlexibleContexts` extension relaxes this rule, as well as relaxing
-the corresponding rule for type signatures (see
-:ref:`flexible-contexts`). Specifically, :extension:`FlexibleContexts`, allows
-(well-kinded) class constraints of form ``(C t1 ... tn)`` in the context
-of an instance declaration.
-
-Notice that the extension does not affect equality constraints in an instance
-context; they are permitted by :extension:`TypeFamilies` or :extension:`GADTs`.
-
-However, the instance declaration must still conform to the rules for
-instance termination: see :ref:`instance-termination`.
-
-.. _instance-termination:
-
-Instance termination rules
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-.. extension:: UndecidableInstances
-    :shortdesc: Enable undecidable instances.
-
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Permit definition of instances which may lead to type-checker non-termination.
-
-Regardless of :extension:`FlexibleInstances` and :extension:`FlexibleContexts`,
-instance declarations must conform to some rules that ensure that
-instance resolution will terminate. The restrictions can be lifted with
-:extension:`UndecidableInstances` (see :ref:`undecidable-instances`).
-
-The rules are these:
-
-1. The Paterson Conditions: for each class constraint ``(C t1 ... tn)``
-   in the context
-
-   1. No type variable has more occurrences in the constraint than in
-      the head
-
-   2. The constraint has fewer constructors and variables (taken
-      together and counting repetitions) than the head
-
-   3. The constraint mentions no type functions. A type function
-      application can in principle expand to a type of arbitrary size,
-      and so are rejected out of hand
-
-2. The Coverage Condition. For each functional dependency,
-   ⟨tvs⟩\ :sub:`left` ``->`` ⟨tvs⟩\ :sub:`right`, of the class, every
-   type variable in S(⟨tvs⟩\ :sub:`right`) must appear in
-   S(⟨tvs⟩\ :sub:`left`), where S is the substitution mapping each type
-   variable in the class declaration to the corresponding type in the
-   instance head.
-
-These restrictions ensure that instance resolution terminates: each
-reduction step makes the problem smaller by at least one constructor.
-You can find lots of background material about the reason for these
-restrictions in the paper `Understanding functional dependencies via
-Constraint Handling
-Rules <https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/jfp06.pdf>`__.
-
-For example, these are okay:
-
-::
-
-      instance C Int [a]          -- Multiple parameters
-      instance Eq (S [a])         -- Structured type in head
-
-          -- Repeated type variable in head
-      instance C4 a a => C4 [a] [a]
-      instance Stateful (ST s) (MutVar s)
-
-          -- Head can consist of type variables only
-      instance C a
-      instance (Eq a, Show b) => C2 a b
-
-          -- Non-type variables in context
-      instance Show (s a) => Show (Sized s a)
-      instance C2 Int a => C3 Bool [a]
-      instance C2 Int a => C3 [a] b
-
-But these are not:
-
-::
-
-          -- Context assertion no smaller than head
-      instance C a => C a where ...
-          -- (C b b) has more occurrences of b than the head
-      instance C b b => Foo [b] where ...
-
-The same restrictions apply to instances generated by ``deriving``
-clauses. Thus the following is accepted:
-
-::
-
-      data MinHeap h a = H a (h a)
-        deriving (Show)
-
-because the derived instance
-
-::
-
-      instance (Show a, Show (h a)) => Show (MinHeap h a)
-
-conforms to the above rules.
-
-A useful idiom permitted by the above rules is as follows. If one allows
-overlapping instance declarations then it's quite convenient to have a
-"default instance" declaration that applies if something more specific
-does not:
-
-::
-
-      instance C a where
-        op = ... -- Default
-
-.. _undecidable-instances:
-
-Undecidable instances
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-.. index::
-   single: -XUndecidableInstances
-
-Sometimes even the termination rules of :ref:`instance-termination` are
-too onerous. So GHC allows you to experiment with more liberal rules: if
-you use the experimental extension :extension:`UndecidableInstances`, both the Paterson
-Conditions and the Coverage
-Condition (described in :ref:`instance-termination`) are lifted.
-Termination is still ensured by having a fixed-depth recursion stack. If
-you exceed the stack depth you get a sort of backtrace, and the
-opportunity to increase the stack depth with
-``-freduction-depth=⟨n⟩``. However, if you should exceed the default
-reduction depth limit, it is probably best just to disable depth
-checking, with ``-freduction-depth=0``. The exact depth your program
-requires depends on minutiae of your code, and it may change between
-minor GHC releases. The safest bet for released code -- if you're sure
-that it should compile in finite time -- is just to disable the check.
-
-For example, sometimes you might want to use the following to get the
-effect of a "class synonym":
-
-::
-
-      class (C1 a, C2 a, C3 a) => C a where { }
-
-      instance (C1 a, C2 a, C3 a) => C a where { }
-
-This allows you to write shorter signatures:
-
-::
-
-      f :: C a => ...
-
-instead of
-
-::
-
-      f :: (C1 a, C2 a, C3 a) => ...
-
-The restrictions on functional dependencies
-(:ref:`functional-dependencies`) are particularly troublesome. It is
-tempting to introduce type variables in the context that do not appear
-in the head, something that is excluded by the normal rules. For
-example:
-
-::
-
-      class HasConverter a b | a -> b where
-         convert :: a -> b
-
-      data Foo a = MkFoo a
-
-      instance (HasConverter a b,Show b) => Show (Foo a) where
-         show (MkFoo value) = show (convert value)
-
-This is dangerous territory, however. Here, for example, is a program
-that would make the typechecker loop:
-
-::
-
-      class D a
-      class F a b | a->b
-      instance F [a] [[a]]
-      instance (D c, F a c) => D [a]   -- 'c' is not mentioned in the head
-
-Similarly, it can be tempting to lift the coverage condition:
-
-::
-
-      class Mul a b c | a b -> c where
-        (.*.) :: a -> b -> c
-
-      instance Mul Int Int Int where (.*.) = (*)
-      instance Mul Int Float Float where x .*. y = fromIntegral x * y
-      instance Mul a b c => Mul a [b] [c] where x .*. v = map (x.*.) v
-
-The third instance declaration does not obey the coverage condition; and
-indeed the (somewhat strange) definition:
-
-::
-
-      f = \ b x y -> if b then x .*. [y] else y
-
-makes instance inference go into a loop, because it requires the
-constraint ``(Mul a [b] b)``.
-
-The :extension:`UndecidableInstances` extension is also used to lift some of the
-restrictions imposed on type family instances. See
-:ref:`type-family-decidability`.
-
-.. _instance-overlap:
-
-Overlapping instances
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-.. extension:: OverlappingInstances
-    :shortdesc: Enable overlapping instances.
-
-    Deprecated extension to weaken checks intended to ensure instance resolution
-    termination.
-
-.. extension:: IncoherentInstances
-    :shortdesc: Enable incoherent instances.
-        Implies :extension:`OverlappingInstances`.
-
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Deprecated extension to weaken checks intended to ensure instance resolution
-    termination.
-
-In general, as discussed in :ref:`instance-resolution`, *GHC requires
-that it be unambiguous which instance declaration should be used to
-resolve a type-class constraint*. GHC also provides a way to loosen
-the instance resolution, by allowing more than one instance to match,
-*provided there is a most specific one*. Moreover, it can be loosened
-further, by allowing more than one instance to match irrespective of
-whether there is a most specific one. This section gives the details.
-
-To control the choice of instance, it is possible to specify the overlap
-behavior for individual instances with a pragma, written immediately
-after the ``instance`` keyword. The pragma may be one of:
-``{-# OVERLAPPING #-}``, ``{-# OVERLAPPABLE #-}``, ``{-# OVERLAPS #-}``,
-or ``{-# INCOHERENT #-}``.
-
-The matching behaviour is also influenced by two module-level language
-extension flags: :extension:`OverlappingInstances` and
-:extension:`IncoherentInstances`. These extensions are now
-deprecated (since GHC 7.10) in favour of the fine-grained per-instance
-pragmas.
-
-A more precise specification is as follows. The willingness to be
-overlapped or incoherent is a property of the *instance declaration*
-itself, controlled as follows:
-
--  An instance is *incoherent* if: it has an ``INCOHERENT`` pragma; or
-   if the instance has no pragma and it appears in a module compiled
-   with :extension:`IncoherentInstances`.
-
--  An instance is *overlappable* if: it has an ``OVERLAPPABLE`` or
-   ``OVERLAPS`` pragma; or if the instance has no pragma and it appears
-   in a module compiled with :extension:`OverlappingInstances`; or if the
-   instance is incoherent.
-
--  An instance is *overlapping* if: it has an ``OVERLAPPING`` or
-   ``OVERLAPS`` pragma; or if the instance has no pragma and it appears
-   in a module compiled with :extension:`OverlappingInstances`; or if the
-   instance is incoherent.
-
-Now suppose that, in some client module, we are searching for an
-instance of the *target constraint* ``(C ty1 .. tyn)``. The search works
-like this:
-
--  Find all instances :math:`I` that *match* the target constraint; that is, the
-   target constraint is a substitution instance of :math:`I`. These instance
-   declarations are the *candidates*.
-
--  If no candidates remain, the search failes
-
--  Eliminate any candidate :math:`IX` for which there is another candidate
-   :math:`IY` such that both of the following hold:
-
-   -  :math:`IY` is strictly more specific than :math:`IX`.  That
-      is, :math:`IY` is a substitution instance of :math:`IX` but not vice versa.
-
-   -  Either :math:`IX` is *overlappable*, or :math:`IY` is *overlapping*. (This
-      "either/or" design, rather than a "both/and" design, allow a
-      client to deliberately override an instance from a library,
-      without requiring a change to the library.)
-
--  If all the remaining candidates are incoherent, the search succeeds, returning
-   an arbitrary surviving candidate.
-
--  If more than one non-incoherent candidate remains, the search fails.
-
--  Otherwise there is exactly one non-incoherent candidate; call it the
-   "prime candidate".
-
--  Now find all instances, or in-scope given constraints, that *unify* with
-   the target constraint,
-   but do not *match* it. Such non-candidate instances might match when
-   the target constraint is further instantiated. If all of them are
-   incoherent top-level instances, the search succeeds, returning the prime candidate.
-   Otherwise the search fails.
-
-Notice that these rules are not influenced by flag settings in the
-client module, where the instances are *used*. These rules make it
-possible for a library author to design a library that relies on
-overlapping instances without the client having to know.
-
-Errors are reported *lazily* (when attempting to solve a constraint),
-rather than *eagerly* (when the instances themselves are defined).
-Consider, for example ::
-
-      instance C Int  b where ..
-      instance C a Bool where ..
-
-These potentially overlap, but GHC will not complain about the instance
-declarations themselves, regardless of flag settings. If we later try to
-solve the constraint ``(C Int Char)`` then only the first instance
-matches, and all is well. Similarly with ``(C Bool Bool)``. But if we
-try to solve ``(C Int Bool)``, both instances match and an error is
-reported.
-
-As a more substantial example of the rules in action, consider ::
-
-      instance {-# OVERLAPPABLE #-} context1 => C Int b     where ...  -- (A)
-      instance {-# OVERLAPPABLE #-} context2 => C a   Bool  where ...  -- (B)
-      instance {-# OVERLAPPABLE #-} context3 => C a   [b]   where ...  -- (C)
-      instance {-# OVERLAPPING  #-} context4 => C Int [Int] where ...  -- (D)
-
-Now suppose that the type inference engine needs to solve the constraint
-``C Int [Int]``. This constraint matches instances (A), (C) and (D), but
-the last is more specific, and hence is chosen.
-
-If (D) did not exist then (A) and (C) would still be matched, but
-neither is most specific. In that case, the program would be rejected,
-unless :extension:`IncoherentInstances` is enabled, in which case it would be
-accepted and (A) or (C) would be chosen arbitrarily.
-
-An instance declaration is *more specific* than another iff the head of
-former is a substitution instance of the latter. For example (D) is
-"more specific" than (C) because you can get from (C) to (D) by
-substituting ``a := Int``.
-
-The final bullet (about unifiying instances)
-makes GHC conservative about committing to an
-overlapping instance. For example: ::
-
-      f :: [b] -> [b]
-      f x = ...
-
-Suppose that from the RHS of ``f`` we get the constraint ``C b [b]``.
-But GHC does not commit to instance (C), because in a particular call of
-``f``, ``b`` might be instantiated to ``Int``, in which case instance (D)
-would be more specific still. So GHC rejects the program.
-
-If, however, you enable the extension :extension:`IncoherentInstances` when compiling
-the module that contains (D), GHC will instead pick (C), without
-complaining about the problem of subsequent instantiations.
-
-Notice that we gave a type signature to ``f``, so GHC had to *check*
-that ``f`` has the specified type. Suppose instead we do not give a type
-signature, asking GHC to *infer* it instead. In this case, GHC will
-refrain from simplifying the constraint ``C Int [b]`` (for the same
-reason as before) but, rather than rejecting the program, it will infer
-the type ::
-
-      f :: C b [b] => [b] -> [b]
-
-That postpones the question of which instance to pick to the call site
-for ``f`` by which time more is known about the type ``b``. You can
-write this type signature yourself if you use the
-:extension:`FlexibleContexts` extension.
-
-Exactly the same situation can arise in instance declarations
-themselves. Suppose we have ::
-
-      class Foo a where
-         f :: a -> a
-      instance Foo [b] where
-         f x = ...
-
-and, as before, the constraint ``C Int [b]`` arises from ``f``'s right
-hand side. GHC will reject the instance, complaining as before that it
-does not know how to resolve the constraint ``C Int [b]``, because it
-matches more than one instance declaration. The solution is to postpone
-the choice by adding the constraint to the context of the instance
-declaration, thus: ::
-
-      instance C Int [b] => Foo [b] where
-         f x = ...
-
-(You need :extension:`FlexibleInstances` to do this.)
-
-In the unification check in the final bullet, GHC also uses the
-"in-scope given constraints".  Consider for example ::
-
-   instance C a Int
-
-   g :: forall b c. C b Int => blah
-   g = ...needs (C c Int)...
-
-Here GHC will not solve the constraint ``(C c Int)`` from the
-top-level instance, because a particular call of ``g`` might
-instantiate both ``b`` and ``c`` to the same type, which would
-allow the constraint to be solved in a different way.  This latter
-restriction is principally to make the constraint-solver complete.
-(Interested folk can read ``Note [Instance and Given overlap]`` in ``TcInteract``.)
-It is easy to avoid: in a type signature avoid a constraint that
-matches a top-level instance.  The flag :ghc-flag:`-Wsimplifiable-class-constraints` warns about such signatures.
-
-.. warning::
-    Overlapping instances must be used with care. They can give
-    rise to incoherence (i.e. different instance choices are made in
-    different parts of the program) even without :extension:`IncoherentInstances`.
-    Consider: ::
-
-        {-# LANGUAGE OverlappingInstances #-}
-        module Help where
-
-            class MyShow a where
-            myshow :: a -> String
-
-            instance MyShow a => MyShow [a] where
-            myshow xs = concatMap myshow xs
-
-            showHelp :: MyShow a => [a] -> String
-            showHelp xs = myshow xs
-
-        {-# LANGUAGE FlexibleInstances, OverlappingInstances #-}
-        module Main where
-            import Help
-
-            data T = MkT
-
-            instance MyShow T where
-            myshow x = "Used generic instance"
-
-            instance MyShow [T] where
-            myshow xs = "Used more specific instance"
-
-            main = do { print (myshow [MkT]); print (showHelp [MkT]) }
-
-    In function ``showHelp`` GHC sees no overlapping instances, and so uses
-    the ``MyShow [a]`` instance without complaint. In the call to ``myshow``
-    in ``main``, GHC resolves the ``MyShow [T]`` constraint using the
-    overlapping instance declaration in module ``Main``. As a result, the
-    program prints
-
-    .. code-block:: none
-
-        "Used more specific instance"
-        "Used generic instance"
-
-    (An alternative possible behaviour, not currently implemented, would be
-    to reject module ``Help`` on the grounds that a later instance
-    declaration might overlap the local one.)
-
-.. _instance-sigs:
-
-Instance signatures: type signatures in instance declarations
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-.. extension:: InstanceSigs
-    :shortdesc: Enable instance signatures.
-
-    :since: 7.6.1
-
-    Allow type signatures for members in instance definitions.
-
-In Haskell, you can't write a type signature in an instance declaration,
-but it is sometimes convenient to do so, and the language extension
-:extension:`InstanceSigs` allows you to do so. For example: ::
-
-      data T a = MkT a a
-      instance Eq a => Eq (T a) where
-        (==) :: T a -> T a -> Bool   -- The signature
-        (==) (MkT x1 x2) (MkTy y1 y2) = x1==y1 && x2==y2
-
-Some details
-
--  The type signature in the instance declaration must be more
-   polymorphic than (or the same as) the one in the class declaration,
-   instantiated with the instance type. For example, this is fine: ::
-
-         instance Eq a => Eq (T a) where
-            (==) :: forall b. b -> b -> Bool
-            (==) x y = True
-
-   Here the signature in the instance declaration is more polymorphic
-   than that required by the instantiated class method.
-
--  The code for the method in the instance declaration is typechecked
-   against the type signature supplied in the instance declaration, as
-   you would expect. So if the instance signature is more polymorphic
-   than required, the code must be too.
-
--  One stylistic reason for wanting to write a type signature is simple
-   documentation. Another is that you may want to bring scoped type
-   variables into scope. For example: ::
-
-       class C a where
-         foo :: b -> a -> (a, [b])
-
-       instance C a => C (T a) where
-         foo :: forall b. b -> T a -> (T a, [b])
-         foo x (T y) = (T y, xs)
-            where
-              xs :: [b]
-              xs = [x,x,x]
-
-   Provided that you also specify :extension:`ScopedTypeVariables`
-   (:ref:`scoped-type-variables`), the ``forall b`` scopes over the
-   definition of ``foo``, and in particular over the type signature for
-   ``xs``.
-
-.. _overloaded-strings:
-
-Overloaded string literals
---------------------------
-
-.. extension:: OverloadedStrings
-    :shortdesc: Enable overloaded string literals.
-
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Enable overloaded string literals (e.g. string literals desugared via the
-    ``IsString`` class).
-
-GHC supports *overloaded string literals*. Normally a string literal has
-type ``String``, but with overloaded string literals enabled (with
-:extension:`OverloadedStrings`) a string literal has type
-``(IsString a) => a``.
-
-This means that the usual string syntax can be used, e.g., for
-``ByteString``, ``Text``, and other variations of string like types.
-String literals behave very much like integer literals, i.e., they can
-be used in both expressions and patterns. If used in a pattern the
-literal will be replaced by an equality test, in the same way as an
-integer literal is.
-
-The class ``IsString`` is defined as: ::
-
-    class IsString a where
-        fromString :: String -> a
-
-The only predefined instance is the obvious one to make strings work as
-usual: ::
-
-    instance IsString [Char] where
-        fromString cs = cs
-
-The class ``IsString`` is not in scope by default. If you want to
-mention it explicitly (for example, to give an instance declaration for
-it), you can import it from module ``Data.String``.
-
-Haskell's defaulting mechanism (`Haskell Report, Section
-4.3.4 <http://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/decls.html#sect4.3.4>`__) is
-extended to cover string literals, when :extension:`OverloadedStrings` is
-specified. Specifically:
-
--  Each type in a ``default`` declaration must be an instance of ``Num``
-   *or* of ``IsString``.
-
--  If no ``default`` declaration is given, then it is just as if the
-   module contained the declaration
-   ``default( Integer, Double, String)``.
-
--  The standard defaulting rule is extended thus: defaulting applies
-   when all the unresolved constraints involve standard classes *or*
-   ``IsString``; and at least one is a numeric class *or* ``IsString``.
-
-So, for example, the expression ``length "foo"`` will give rise to an
-ambiguous use of ``IsString a0`` which, because of the above rules, will
-default to ``String``.
-
-A small example:
-
-::
-
-    module Main where
-
-    import Data.String( IsString(..) )
-
-    newtype MyString = MyString String deriving (Eq, Show)
-    instance IsString MyString where
-        fromString = MyString
-
-    greet :: MyString -> MyString
-    greet "hello" = "world"
-    greet other = other
-
-    main = do
-        print $ greet "hello"
-        print $ greet "fool"
-
-Note that deriving ``Eq`` is necessary for the pattern matching to work
-since it gets translated into an equality comparison.
-
-.. _overloaded-labels:
-
-Overloaded labels
------------------
-
-.. extension:: OverloadedLabels
-    :shortdesc: Enable overloaded labels.
-
-    :since: 8.0.1
-
-    Enable use of the ``#foo`` overloaded label syntax.
-
-GHC supports *overloaded labels*, a form of identifier whose interpretation may
-depend both on its type and on its literal text.  When the
-:extension:`OverloadedLabels` extension is enabled, an overloaded label can be written
-with a prefix hash, for example ``#foo``.  The type of this expression is
-``IsLabel "foo" a => a``.
-
-The class ``IsLabel`` is defined as:
-
-::
-
-    class IsLabel (x :: Symbol) a where
-      fromLabel :: a
-
-This is rather similar to the class ``IsString`` (see
-:ref:`overloaded-strings`), but with an additional type parameter that makes the
-text of the label available as a type-level string (see
-:ref:`type-level-literals`).  Note that ``fromLabel`` had an extra ``Proxy# x``
-argument in GHC 8.0, but this was removed in GHC 8.2 as a type application (see
-:ref:`visible-type-application`) can be used instead.
-
-There are no predefined instances of this class.  It is not in scope by default,
-but can be brought into scope by importing
-:base-ref:`GHC.OverloadedLabels.`.  Unlike
-``IsString``, there are no special defaulting rules for ``IsLabel``.
-
-During typechecking, GHC will replace an occurrence of an overloaded label like
-``#foo`` with ``fromLabel @"foo"``.  This will have some type ``alpha`` and
-require the solution of a class constraint ``IsLabel "foo" alpha``.
-
-The intention is for ``IsLabel`` to be used to support overloaded record fields
-and perhaps anonymous records.  Thus, it may be given instances for base
-datatypes (in particular ``(->)``) in the future.
-
-If :extension:`RebindableSyntax` is enabled, overloaded
-labels will be desugared using whatever ``fromLabel`` function is in scope,
-rather than always using ``GHC.OverloadedLabels.fromLabel``.
-
-When writing an overloaded label, there must be no space between the hash sign
-and the following identifier.  The :extension:`MagicHash` extension makes use
-of postfix hash signs; if :extension:`OverloadedLabels` and
-:extension:`MagicHash` are both enabled then ``x#y`` means ``x# y``, but if
-only :extension:`OverloadedLabels` is enabled then it means ``x #y``.  The
-:extension:`UnboxedTuples` extension makes ``(#`` a single lexeme, so when
-:extension:`UnboxedTuples` is enabled you must write a space between an opening
-parenthesis and an overloaded label.  To avoid confusion, you are strongly
-encouraged to put a space before the hash when using
-:extension:`OverloadedLabels`.
-
-When using :extension:`OverloadedLabels` (or other extensions that make use of
-hash signs) in a ``.hsc`` file (see :ref:`hsc2hs`), the hash signs must be
-doubled (write ``##foo`` instead of ``#foo``) to avoid them being treated as
-``hsc2hs`` directives.
-
-Here is an extension of the record access example in :ref:`type-level-literals`
-showing how an overloaded label can be used as a record selector:
-
-::
-
-    {-# LANGUAGE DataKinds, KindSignatures, MultiParamTypeClasses,
-                 FunctionalDependencies, FlexibleInstances,
-                 OverloadedLabels, ScopedTypeVariables #-}
-
-    import GHC.OverloadedLabels (IsLabel(..))
-    import GHC.TypeLits (Symbol)
-
-    data Label (l :: Symbol) = Get
-
-    class Has a l b | a l -> b where
-      from :: a -> Label l -> b
-
-    data Point = Point Int Int deriving Show
-
-    instance Has Point "x" Int where from (Point x _) _ = x
-    instance Has Point "y" Int where from (Point _ y) _ = y
-
-    instance Has a l b => IsLabel l (a -> b) where
-      fromLabel x = from x (Get :: Label l)
-
-    example = #x (Point 1 2)
-
-
-.. _overloaded-lists:
-
-Overloaded lists
-----------------
-
-.. extension:: OverloadedLists
-    :shortdesc: Enable overloaded lists.
-
-    :since: 7.8.1
-
-    Enable overloaded list syntax (e.g. desugaring of lists via the
-    ``IsList`` class).
-
-GHC supports *overloading of the list notation*. Let us recap the
-notation for constructing lists. In Haskell, the list notation can be
-used in the following seven ways:
-
-::
-
-    []          -- Empty list
-    [x]         -- x : []
-    [x,y,z]     -- x : y : z : []
-    [x .. ]     -- enumFrom x
-    [x,y ..]    -- enumFromThen x y
-    [x .. y]    -- enumFromTo x y
-    [x,y .. z]  -- enumFromThenTo x y z
-
-When the ``OverloadedLists`` extension is turned on, the aforementioned
-seven notations are desugared as follows:
-
-::
-
-    []          -- fromListN 0 []
-    [x]         -- fromListN 1 (x : [])
-    [x,y,z]     -- fromListN 3 (x : y : z : [])
-    [x .. ]     -- fromList (enumFrom x)
-    [x,y ..]    -- fromList (enumFromThen x y)
-    [x .. y]    -- fromList (enumFromTo x y)
-    [x,y .. z]  -- fromList (enumFromThenTo x y z)
-
-This extension allows programmers to use the list notation for
-construction of structures like: ``Set``, ``Map``, ``IntMap``,
-``Vector``, ``Text`` and ``Array``. The following code listing gives a
-few examples:
-
-::
-
-    ['0' .. '9']             :: Set Char
-    [1 .. 10]                :: Vector Int
-    [("default",0), (k1,v1)] :: Map String Int
-    ['a' .. 'z']             :: Text
-
-List patterns are also overloaded. When the ``OverloadedLists``
-extension is turned on, these definitions are desugared as follows
-
-::
-
-    f [] = ...          -- f (toList -> []) = ...
-    g [x,y,z] = ...     -- g (toList -> [x,y,z]) = ...
-
-(Here we are using view-pattern syntax for the translation, see
-:ref:`view-patterns`.)
-
-The ``IsList`` class
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-In the above desugarings, the functions ``toList``, ``fromList`` and
-``fromListN`` are all methods of the ``IsList`` class, which is itself
-exported from the ``GHC.Exts`` module. The type class is defined as
-follows:
-
-::
-
-    class IsList l where
-      type Item l
-
-      fromList :: [Item l] -> l
-      toList   :: l -> [Item l]
-
-      fromListN :: Int -> [Item l] -> l
-      fromListN _ = fromList
-
-The ``IsList`` class and its methods are intended to be used in
-conjunction with the ``OverloadedLists`` extension.
-
--  The type function ``Item`` returns the type of items of the structure
-   ``l``.
-
--  The function ``fromList`` constructs the structure ``l`` from the
-   given list of ``Item l``.
-
--  The function ``fromListN`` takes the input list's length as a hint.
-   Its behaviour should be equivalent to ``fromList``. The hint can be
-   used for more efficient construction of the structure ``l`` compared
-   to ``fromList``. If the given hint is not equal to the input list's
-   length the behaviour of ``fromListN`` is not specified.
-
--  The function ``toList`` should be the inverse of ``fromList``.
-
-It is perfectly fine to declare new instances of ``IsList``, so that
-list notation becomes useful for completely new data types. Here are
-several example instances:
-
-::
-
-    instance IsList [a] where
-      type Item [a] = a
-      fromList = id
-      toList = id
-
-    instance (Ord a) => IsList (Set a) where
-      type Item (Set a) = a
-      fromList = Set.fromList
-      toList = Set.toList
-
-    instance (Ord k) => IsList (Map k v) where
-      type Item (Map k v) = (k,v)
-      fromList = Map.fromList
-      toList = Map.toList
-
-    instance IsList (IntMap v) where
-      type Item (IntMap v) = (Int,v)
-      fromList = IntMap.fromList
-      toList = IntMap.toList
-
-    instance IsList Text where
-      type Item Text = Char
-      fromList = Text.pack
-      toList = Text.unpack
-
-    instance IsList (Vector a) where
-      type Item (Vector a) = a
-      fromList  = Vector.fromList
-      fromListN = Vector.fromListN
-      toList = Vector.toList
-
-Rebindable syntax
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-When desugaring list notation with :extension:`OverloadedLists` GHC uses the
-``fromList`` (etc) methods from module ``GHC.Exts``. You do not need to
-import ``GHC.Exts`` for this to happen.
-
-However if you use :extension:`RebindableSyntax`, then GHC instead uses
-whatever is in scope with the names of ``toList``, ``fromList`` and
-``fromListN``. That is, these functions are rebindable; c.f.
-:ref:`rebindable-syntax`.
-
-Defaulting
-~~~~~~~~~~
-
-Currently, the ``IsList`` class is not accompanied with defaulting
-rules. Although feasible, not much thought has gone into how to specify
-the meaning of the default declarations like: ::
-
-    default ([a])
-
-Speculation about the future
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-The current implementation of the ``OverloadedLists`` extension can be
-improved by handling the lists that are only populated with literals in
-a special way. More specifically, the compiler could allocate such lists
-statically using a compact representation and allow ``IsList`` instances
-to take advantage of the compact representation. Equipped with this
-capability the ``OverloadedLists`` extension will be in a good position
-to subsume the ``OverloadedStrings`` extension (currently, as a special
-case, string literals benefit from statically allocated compact
-representation).
-
-Undecidable (or recursive) superclasses
----------------------------------------
-
-.. extension:: UndecidableSuperClasses
-    :shortdesc: Allow all superclass constraints, including those that may
-        result in non-termination of the typechecker.
-
-    :since: 8.0.1
-
-    Allow all superclass constraints, including those that may result in
-    non-termination of the typechecker.
-
-The language extension :extension:`UndecidableSuperClasses` allows much more flexible
-constraints in superclasses.
-
-A class cannot generally have itself as a superclass. So this is illegal ::
-
-    class C a => D a where ...
-    class D a => C a where ...
-
-GHC implements this test conservatively when type functions, or type variables,
-are involved. For example ::
-
-    type family F a :: Constraint
-    class F a => C a where ...
-
-GHC will complain about this, because you might later add ::
-
-    type instance F Int = C Int
-
-and now we'd be in a superclass loop.  Here's an example involving a type variable ::
-
-   class f (C f) => C f
-   class c       => Id c
-
-If we expanded the superclasses of ``C Id`` we'd get first ``Id (C Id)`` and
-thence ``C Id`` again.
-
-But superclass constraints like these are sometimes useful, and the conservative
-check is annoying where no actual recursion is involved.
-
-Moreover genuninely-recursive superclasses are sometimes useful. Here's a real-life
-example (#10318) ::
-
-     class (Frac (Frac a) ~ Frac a,
-            Fractional (Frac a),
-            IntegralDomain (Frac a))
-         => IntegralDomain a where
-      type Frac a :: Type
-
-Here the superclass cycle does terminate but it's not entirely straightforward
-to see that it does.
-
-With the language extension :extension:`UndecidableSuperClasses` GHC lifts all restrictions
-on superclass constraints. If there really *is* a loop, GHC will only
-expand it to finite depth.
-
-
-.. _type-families:
-
-Type families
-=============
-
-.. extension:: TypeFamilies
-    :shortdesc: Enable type families.
-        Implies :extension:`ExplicitNamespaces`, :extension:`KindSignatures`,
-        and :extension:`MonoLocalBinds`.
-
-    :implies: :extension:`MonoLocalBinds`, :extension:`KindSignatures`,
-              :extension:`ExplicitNamespaces`
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Allow use and definition of indexed type and data families.
-
-Indexed type families form an extension to facilitate type-level
-programming. Type families are a generalisation of associated data types
-[AssocDataTypes2005]_ and associated type synonyms
-[AssocTypeSyn2005]_ Type families themselves are described in
-Schrijvers 2008 [TypeFamilies2008]_. Type families essentially provide
-type-indexed data types and named functions on types, which are useful for
-generic programming and highly parameterised library interfaces as well as
-interfaces with enhanced static information, much like dependent types. They
-might also be regarded as an alternative to functional dependencies, but provide
-a more functional style of type-level programming than the relational style of
-functional dependencies.
-
-Indexed type families, or type families for short, are type constructors
-that represent sets of types. Set members are denoted by supplying the
-type family constructor with type parameters, which are called type
-indices. The difference between vanilla parametrised type constructors
-and family constructors is much like between parametrically polymorphic
-functions and (ad-hoc polymorphic) methods of type classes. Parametric
-polymorphic functions behave the same at all type instances, whereas
-class methods can change their behaviour in dependence on the class type
-parameters. Similarly, vanilla type constructors imply the same data
-representation for all type instances, but family constructors can have
-varying representation types for varying type indices.
-
-Indexed type families come in three flavours: data families, open type
-synonym families, and closed type synonym families. They are the indexed
-family variants of algebraic data types and type synonyms, respectively.
-The instances of data families can be data types and newtypes.
-
-Type families are enabled by the language extension :extension:`TypeFamilies`. Additional
-information on the use of type families in GHC is available on `the
-Haskell wiki page on type
-families <http://www.haskell.org/haskellwiki/GHC/Indexed_types>`__.
-
-.. [AssocDataTypes2005]
-    “`Associated Types with Class
-    <http://www.cse.unsw.edu.au/~chak/papers/CKPM05.html>`__\ ”, M.
-    Chakravarty, G. Keller, S. Peyton Jones,
-    and S. Marlow. In Proceedings of “The 32nd Annual
-    ACM SIGPLAN-SIGACT Symposium on Principles of
-    Programming Languages (POPL'05)”, pages 1-13, ACM
-    Press, 2005.
-
-.. [AssocTypeSyn2005]
-    “`Type Associated Type
-    Synonyms <http://www.cse.unsw.edu.au/~chak/papers/CKP05.html>`__\ ”. M.
-    Chakravarty, G. Keller, and S. Peyton Jones. In Proceedings of “The
-    Tenth ACM SIGPLAN International Conference on Functional Programming”,
-    ACM Press, pages 241-253, 2005.
-
-.. [TypeFamilies2008]
-    “\ `Type Checking with Open Type
-    Functions <http://www.cse.unsw.edu.au/~chak/papers/SPCS08.html>`__\ ”,
-    T. Schrijvers, S. Peyton-Jones, M. Chakravarty, and M. Sulzmann, in
-    Proceedings of “ICFP 2008: The 13th ACM SIGPLAN International Conference
-    on Functional Programming”, ACM Press, pages 51-62, 2008.
-
-
-.. _data-families:
-
-Data families
--------------
-
-Data families appear in two flavours: (1) they can be defined on the
-toplevel or (2) they can appear inside type classes (in which case they
-are known as associated types). The former is the more general variant,
-as it lacks the requirement for the type-indexes to coincide with the
-class parameters. However, the latter can lead to more clearly
-structured code and compiler warnings if some type instances were -
-possibly accidentally - omitted. In the following, we always discuss the
-general toplevel form first and then cover the additional constraints
-placed on associated types.
-
-.. _data-family-declarations:
-
-Data family declarations
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-Indexed data families are introduced by a signature, such as ::
-
-    data family GMap k :: Type -> Type
-
-The special ``family`` distinguishes family from standard data
-declarations. The result kind annotation is optional and, as usual,
-defaults to ``Type`` if omitted. An example is ::
-
-    data family Array e
-
-Named arguments can also be given explicit kind signatures if needed.
-Just as with :ref:`GADT declarations <gadt>` named arguments are
-entirely optional, so that we can declare ``Array`` alternatively with ::
-
-    data family Array :: Type -> Type
-
-Unlike with ordinary data definitions, the result kind of a data family
-does not need to be ``Type``. It can alternatively be:
-
-* Of the form ``TYPE r`` for some ``r`` (see :ref:`runtime-rep`).
-  For example: ::
-
-    data family DF1 :: TYPE IntRep
-    data family DF2 (r :: RuntimeRep)  :: TYPE r
-    data family DF3 :: Type -> TYPE WordRep
-
-* A bare kind variable (with :extension:`PolyKinds` enabled).
-  For example: ::
-
-    data family DF4 :: k
-    data family DF5 (a :: k) :: k
-    data family DF6 :: (k -> Type) -> k
-
-Data instances' kinds must end in ``Type``, however. This restriction is
-slightly relaxed when the :extension:`UnliftedNewtypes` extension is enabled,
-as it permits a ``newtype instance``'s kind to end in ``TYPE r`` for some
-``r``.
-
-.. _data-instance-declarations:
-
-Data instance declarations
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-Instance declarations of data and newtype families are very similar to
-standard data and newtype declarations. The only two differences are
-that the keyword ``data`` or ``newtype`` is followed by ``instance`` and
-that some or all of the type arguments can be non-variable types, but
-may not contain forall types or type synonym families. However, data
-families are generally allowed in type parameters, and type synonyms are
-allowed as long as they are fully applied and expand to a type that is
-itself admissible - exactly as this is required for occurrences of type
-synonyms in class instance parameters. For example, the ``Either``
-instance for ``GMap`` is ::
-
-    data instance GMap (Either a b) v = GMapEither (GMap a v) (GMap b v)
-
-In this example, the declaration has only one variant. In general, it
-can be any number.
-
-When :extension:`ExplicitForAll` is enabled, type and kind variables used on
-the left hand side can be explicitly bound. For example: ::
-
-    data instance forall a (b :: Proxy a). F (Proxy b) = FProxy Bool
-
-When an explicit ``forall`` is present, *all* type and kind variables mentioned
-which are not already in scope must be bound by the ``forall``:
-
-    data instance forall   (a :: k). F a = FOtherwise  -- rejected: k not in scope
-    data instance forall k (a :: k). F a = FOtherwise  -- accepted
-
-When the flag :ghc-flag:`-Wunused-type-patterns` is enabled, type
-variables that are mentioned in the patterns on the left hand side, but not
-used on the right hand side are reported. Variables that occur multiple times
-on the left hand side are also considered used. To suppress the warnings,
-unused variables should be either replaced or prefixed with underscores. Type
-variables starting with an underscore (``_x``) are otherwise treated as
-ordinary type variables.
-
-This resembles the wildcards that can be used in
-:ref:`partial-type-signatures`. However, there are some differences.
-No error messages reporting the inferred types are generated, nor does
-the extension :extension:`PartialTypeSignatures` have any effect.
-
-A type or kind variable explicitly bound using :extension:`ExplicitForAll` but
-not used on the left hand side will generate an error, not a warning.
-
-Data and newtype instance declarations are only permitted when an
-appropriate family declaration is in scope - just as a class instance
-declaration requires the class declaration to be visible. Moreover, each
-instance declaration has to conform to the kind determined by its family
-declaration. This implies that the number of parameters of an instance
-declaration matches the arity determined by the kind of the family.
-
-A data family instance declaration can use the full expressiveness of
-ordinary ``data`` or ``newtype`` declarations:
-
--  Although, a data family is *introduced* with the keyword "``data``",
-   a data family *instance* can use either ``data`` or ``newtype``. For
-   example: ::
-
-       data family T a
-       data    instance T Int  = T1 Int | T2 Bool
-       newtype instance T Char = TC Bool
-
--  A ``data instance`` can use GADT syntax for the data constructors,
-   and indeed can define a GADT. For example: ::
-
-       data family G a b
-       data instance G [a] b where
-          G1 :: c -> G [Int] b
-          G2 :: G [a] Bool
-
--  You can use a ``deriving`` clause on a ``data instance`` or
-   ``newtype instance`` declaration.
-
-Even if data families are defined as toplevel declarations, functions
-that perform different computations for different family instances may
-still need to be defined as methods of type classes. In particular, the
-following is not possible: ::
-
-    data family T a
-    data instance T Int  = A
-    data instance T Char = B
-    foo :: T a -> Int
-    foo A = 1
-    foo B = 2
-
-Instead, you would have to write ``foo`` as a class operation, thus: ::
-
-    class Foo a where
-      foo :: T a -> Int
-    instance Foo Int where
-      foo A = 1
-    instance Foo Char where
-      foo B = 2
-
-Given the functionality provided by GADTs (Generalised Algebraic Data
-Types), it might seem as if a definition, such as the above, should be
-feasible. However, type families - in contrast to GADTs - are
-*open;* i.e., new instances can always be added, possibly in other
-modules. Supporting pattern matching across different data instances
-would require a form of extensible case construct.
-
-.. _data-family-overlap:
-
-Overlap of data instances
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-The instance declarations of a data family used in a single program may
-not overlap at all, independent of whether they are associated or not.
-In contrast to type class instances, this is not only a matter of
-consistency, but one of type safety.
-
-.. _synonym-families:
-
-Synonym families
-----------------
-
-Type families appear in three flavours: (1) they can be defined as open
-families on the toplevel, (2) they can be defined as closed families on
-the toplevel, or (3) they can appear inside type classes (in which case
-they are known as associated type synonyms). Toplevel families are more
-general, as they lack the requirement for the type-indexes to coincide
-with the class parameters. However, associated type synonyms can lead to
-more clearly structured code and compiler warnings if some type
-instances were - possibly accidentally - omitted. In the following, we
-always discuss the general toplevel forms first and then cover the
-additional constraints placed on associated types. Note that closed
-associated type synonyms do not exist.
-
-.. _type-family-declarations:
-
-Type family declarations
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-Open indexed type families are introduced by a signature, such as ::
-
-    type family Elem c :: Type
-
-The special ``family`` distinguishes family from standard type
-declarations. The result kind annotation is optional and, as usual,
-defaults to ``Type`` if omitted. An example is ::
-
-    type family Elem c
-
-Parameters can also be given explicit kind signatures if needed. We call
-the number of parameters in a type family declaration, the family's
-arity, and all applications of a type family must be fully saturated
-with respect to that arity. This requirement is unlike ordinary type synonyms
-and it implies that the kind of a type family is not sufficient to
-determine a family's arity, and hence in general, also insufficient to
-determine whether a type family application is well formed. As an
-example, consider the following declaration: ::
-
-    type family F a b :: Type -> Type
-      -- F's arity is 2,
-      -- although its overall kind is Type -> Type -> Type -> Type
-
-Given this declaration the following are examples of well-formed and
-malformed types: ::
-
-    F Char [Int]       -- OK!  Kind: Type -> Type
-    F Char [Int] Bool  -- OK!  Kind: Type
-    F IO Bool          -- WRONG: kind mismatch in the first argument
-    F Bool             -- WRONG: unsaturated application
-
-The result kind annotation is optional and defaults to ``Type`` (like
-argument kinds) if omitted. Polykinded type families can be declared
-using a parameter in the kind annotation: ::
-
-    type family F a :: k
-
-In this case the kind parameter ``k`` is actually an implicit parameter
-of the type family.
-
-At definition site, the arity determines what inputs can be matched on: ::
-
-    data PT (a :: Type)
-
-    type family F1 :: k -> Type
-    type instance F1 = PT
-      -- OK, 'k' can be matched on.
-
-    type family F0 :: forall k. k -> Type
-    type instance F0 = PT
-      -- Error:
-      --   • Expected kind ‘forall k. k -> Type’,
-      --       but ‘PT’ has kind ‘Type -> Type’
-      --   • In the type ‘PT’
-      --     In the type instance declaration for ‘F0’
-
-Both ``F1`` and ``F0`` have kind ``forall k. k -> Type``, but their arity
-differs.
-
-At use sites, the arity determines if the definition can be used in a
-higher-rank scenario: ::
-
-    type HRK (f :: forall k. k -> Type) = (f Int, f Maybe, f True)
-
-    type H1 = HRK F0  -- OK
-    type H2 = HRK F1
-      -- Error:
-      --   • Expected kind ‘forall k. k -> Type’,
-      --       but ‘F1’ has kind ‘k0 -> Type’
-      --   • In the first argument of ‘HRK’, namely ‘F1’
-      --     In the type ‘HRK F1’
-      --     In the type declaration for ‘H2’
-
-This is a consequence of the requirement that all applications of a type family
-must be fully saturated with respect to their arity.
-
-.. _type-instance-declarations:
-
-Type instance declarations
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-Instance declarations of type families are very similar to standard type
-synonym declarations. The only two differences are that the keyword
-``type`` is followed by ``instance`` and that some or all of the type
-arguments can be non-variable types, but may not contain forall types or
-type synonym families. However, data families are generally allowed, and
-type synonyms are allowed as long as they are fully applied and expand
-to a type that is admissible - these are the exact same requirements as
-for data instances. For example, the ``[e]`` instance for ``Elem`` is ::
-
-    type instance Elem [e] = e
-
-Type arguments can be replaced with underscores (``_``) if the names of
-the arguments don't matter. This is the same as writing type variables
-with unique names. Unused type arguments can be replaced or prefixed
-with underscores to avoid warnings when the
-:ghc-flag:`-Wunused-type-patterns` flag is enabled. The same rules apply
-as for :ref:`data-instance-declarations`.
-
-Also in the same way as :ref:`data-instance-declarations`, when
-:extension:`ExplicitForAll` is enabled, type and kind variables can be
-explicilty bound in a type instance declaration.
-
-Type family instance declarations are only legitimate when an
-appropriate family declaration is in scope - just like class instances
-require the class declaration to be visible. Moreover, each instance
-declaration has to conform to the kind determined by its family
-declaration, and the number of type parameters in an instance
-declaration must match the number of type parameters in the family
-declaration. Finally, the right-hand side of a type instance must be a
-monotype (i.e., it may not include foralls) and after the expansion of
-all saturated vanilla type synonyms, no synonyms, except family synonyms
-may remain.
-
-.. _closed-type-families:
-
-Closed type families
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-A type family can also be declared with a ``where`` clause, defining the
-full set of equations for that family. For example: ::
-
-    type family F a where
-      F Int  = Double
-      F Bool = Char
-      F a    = String
-
-A closed type family's equations are tried in order, from top to bottom,
-when simplifying a type family application. In this example, we declare
-an instance for ``F`` such that ``F Int`` simplifies to ``Double``,
-``F Bool`` simplifies to ``Char``, and for any other type ``a`` that is
-known not to be ``Int`` or ``Bool``, ``F a`` simplifies to ``String``.
-Note that GHC must be sure that ``a`` cannot unify with ``Int`` or
-``Bool`` in that last case; if a programmer specifies just ``F a`` in
-their code, GHC will not be able to simplify the type. After all, ``a``
-might later be instantiated with ``Int``.
-
-A closed type family's equations have the same restrictions and extensions as
-the equations for open type family instances. For instance, when
-:extension:`ExplicitForAll` is enabled, type or kind variables used on the
-left hand side of an equation can be explicitly bound, such as in: ::
-
-  type family R a where
-    forall t a. R (t a) = [a]
-    forall a.   R a     = a
-
-A closed type family may be declared with no equations. Such closed type
-families are opaque type-level definitions that will never reduce, are
-not necessarily injective (unlike empty data types), and cannot be given
-any instances. This is different from omitting the equations of a closed
-type family in a ``hs-boot`` file, which uses the syntax ``where ..``,
-as in that case there may or may not be equations given in the ``hs``
-file.
-
-.. _type-family-examples:
-
-Type family examples
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-Here are some examples of admissible and illegal type instances: ::
-
-    type family F a :: Type
-    type instance F [Int]   = Int   -- OK!
-    type instance F String  = Char  -- OK!
-    type instance F (F a)   = a     -- WRONG: type parameter mentions a type family
-    type instance
-      F (forall a. (a, b))  = b     -- WRONG: a forall type appears in a type parameter
-    type instance
-      F Float = forall a.a          -- WRONG: right-hand side may not be a forall type
-    type family H a where          -- OK!
-      H Int  = Int
-      H Bool = Bool
-      H a    = String
-    type instance H Char = Char    -- WRONG: cannot have instances of closed family
-    type family K a where          -- OK!
-
-    type family G a b :: Type -> Type
-    type instance G Int            = (,)     -- WRONG: must be two type parameters
-    type instance G Int Char Float = Double  -- WRONG: must be two type parameters
-
-.. _type-family-overlap:
-
-Compatibility and apartness of type family equations
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-There must be some restrictions on the equations of type families, lest
-we define an ambiguous rewrite system. So, equations of open type
-families are restricted to be compatible. Two type patterns are
-compatible if
-
-1. all corresponding types and implicit kinds in the patterns are apart,
-   or
-
-2. the two patterns unify producing a substitution, and the right-hand
-   sides are equal under that substitution.
-
-Two types are considered apart if, for all possible substitutions, the
-types cannot reduce to a common reduct.
-
-The first clause of "compatible" is the more straightforward one. It
-says that the patterns of two distinct type family instances cannot
-overlap. For example, the following is disallowed: ::
-
-    type instance F Int = Bool
-    type instance F Int = Char
-
-The second clause is a little more interesting. It says that two
-overlapping type family instances are allowed if the right-hand sides
-coincide in the region of overlap. Some examples help here: ::
-
-    type instance F (a, Int) = [a]
-    type instance F (Int, b) = [b]   -- overlap permitted
-
-    type instance G (a, Int)  = [a]
-    type instance G (Char, a) = [a]  -- ILLEGAL overlap, as [Char] /= [Int]
-
-Note that this compatibility condition is independent of whether the
-type family is associated or not, and it is not only a matter of
-consistency, but one of type safety.
-
-For a polykinded type family, the kinds are checked for apartness just
-like types. For example, the following is accepted: ::
-
-    type family J a :: k
-    type instance J Int = Bool
-    type instance J Int = Maybe
-
-These instances are compatible because they differ in their implicit kind
-parameter; the first uses ``Type`` while the second uses ``Type -> Type``.
-
-The definition for "compatible" uses a notion of "apart", whose
-definition in turn relies on type family reduction. This condition of
-"apartness", as stated, is impossible to check, so we use this
-conservative approximation: two types are considered to be apart when
-the two types cannot be unified, even by a potentially infinite unifier.
-Allowing the unifier to be infinite disallows the following pair of
-instances: ::
-
-    type instance H x   x = Int
-    type instance H [x] x = Bool
-
-The type patterns in this pair equal if ``x`` is replaced by an infinite
-nesting of lists. Rejecting instances such as these is necessary for
-type soundness.
-
-Compatibility also affects closed type families. When simplifying an
-application of a closed type family, GHC will select an equation only
-when it is sure that no incompatible previous equation will ever apply.
-Here are some examples: ::
-
-    type family F a where
-      F Int = Bool
-      F a   = Char
-
-    type family G a where
-      G Int = Int
-      G a   = a
-
-In the definition for ``F``, the two equations are incompatible -- their
-patterns are not apart, and yet their right-hand sides do not coincide.
-Thus, before GHC selects the second equation, it must be sure that the
-first can never apply. So, the type ``F a`` does not simplify; only a
-type such as ``F Double`` will simplify to ``Char``. In ``G``, on the
-other hand, the two equations are compatible. Thus, GHC can ignore the
-first equation when looking at the second. So, ``G a`` will simplify to
-``a``.
-
-Incompatibilities between closed type family equations can be displayed
-in :ghci-cmd:`:info` when :ghc-flag:`-fprint-axiom-incomps` is enabled.
-
-However see :ref:`ghci-decls` for the overlap rules in GHCi.
-
-.. _type-family-decidability:
-
-Decidability of type synonym instances
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-.. extension:: UndecidableInstances
-    :noindex:
-
-    Relax restrictions on the decidability of type synonym family instances.
-
-In order to guarantee that type inference in the presence of type
-families decidable, we need to place a number of additional restrictions
-on the formation of type instance declarations (c.f., Definition 5
-(Relaxed Conditions) of “\ `Type Checking with Open Type
-Functions <http://www.cse.unsw.edu.au/~chak/papers/SPCS08.html>`__\ ”).
-Instance declarations have the general form ::
-
-    type instance F t1 .. tn = t
-
-where we require that for every type family application ``(G s1 .. sm)``
-in ``t``,
-
-1. ``s1 .. sm`` do not contain any type family constructors,
-
-2. the total number of symbols (data type constructors and type
-   variables) in ``s1 .. sm`` is strictly smaller than in ``t1 .. tn``,
-   and
-
-3. for every type variable ``a``, ``a`` occurs in ``s1 .. sm`` at most
-   as often as in ``t1 .. tn``.
-
-These restrictions are easily verified and ensure termination of type
-inference. However, they are not sufficient to guarantee completeness of
-type inference in the presence of, so called, ''loopy equalities'', such
-as ``a ~ [F a]``, where a recursive occurrence of a type variable is
-underneath a family application and data constructor application - see
-the above mentioned paper for details.
-
-If the option :extension:`UndecidableInstances` is passed to the compiler, the
-above restrictions are not enforced and it is on the programmer to ensure
-termination of the normalisation of type families during type inference.
-
-.. _type-wildcards-lhs:
-
-Wildcards on the LHS of data and type family instances
-------------------------------------------------------
-
-When the name of a type argument of a data or type instance
-declaration doesn't matter, it can be replaced with an underscore
-(``_``). This is the same as writing a type variable with a unique name. ::
-
-    data family F a b :: Type
-    data instance F Int _ = Int
-    -- Equivalent to  data instance F Int b = Int
-
-    type family T a :: Type
-    type instance T (a,_) = a
-    -- Equivalent to  type instance T (a,b) = a
-
-This use of underscore for wildcard in a type pattern is exactly like
-pattern matching in the term language, but is rather different to the
-use of a underscore in a partial type signature (see :ref:`type-wildcards`).
-
-A type variable beginning with an underscore is not treated specially in a
-type or data instance declaration.  For example: ::
-
-   data instance F Bool _a = _a -> Int
-   -- Equivalent to  data instance F Bool a = a -> Int
-
-Contrast this with the special treatment of named wildcards in
-type signatures (:ref:`named-wildcards`).
-
-
-.. _assoc-decl:
-
-Associated data and type families
----------------------------------
-
-A data or type synonym family can be declared as part of a type class,
-thus: ::
-
-    class GMapKey k where
-      data GMap k :: Type -> Type
-      ...
-
-    class Collects ce where
-      type Elem ce :: Type
-      ...
-
-When doing so, we (optionally) may drop the "``family``" keyword.
-
-The type parameters must all be type variables, of course, and some (but
-not necessarily all) of then can be the class parameters. Each class
-parameter may only be used at most once per associated type, but some
-may be omitted and they may be in an order other than in the class head.
-Hence, the following contrived example is admissible: ::
-
-      class C a b c where
-        type T c a x :: Type
-
-Here ``c`` and ``a`` are class parameters, but the type is also indexed
-on a third parameter ``x``.
-
-.. _assoc-inst:
-
-Associated instances
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-When an associated data or type synonym family instance is declared
-within a type class instance, we (optionally) may drop the ``instance``
-keyword in the family instance: ::
-
-    instance (GMapKey a, GMapKey b) => GMapKey (Either a b) where
-      data GMap (Either a b) v = GMapEither (GMap a v) (GMap b v)
-      ...
-
-    instance Eq (Elem [e]) => Collects [e] where
-      type Elem [e] = e
-      ...
-
-The data or type family instance for an associated type must follow
-the rule that the type indexes corresponding to class parameters must have
-precisely the same as type given in the instance head. For example: ::
-
-    class Collects ce where
-      type Elem ce :: Type
-
-    instance Eq (Elem [e]) => Collects [e] where
-      -- Choose one of the following alternatives:
-      type Elem [e] = e       -- OK
-      type Elem [x] = x       -- BAD; '[x]' is different to '[e]' from head
-      type Elem x   = x       -- BAD; 'x' is different to '[e]'
-      type Elem [Maybe x] = x -- BAD: '[Maybe x]' is different to '[e]'
-
-Note the following points:
-
--  An instance for an associated family can only appear as part of an
-   instance declarations of the class in which the family was declared,
-   just as with the equations of the methods of a class.
-
--  The type variables on the right hand side of the type family equation
-   must, as usual, be explicitly bound by the left hand side. This restriction
-   is relaxed for *kind* variables, however, as the right hand side is allowed
-   to mention kind variables that are implicitly bound. For example, these are
-   legitimate: ::
-
-    data family Nat :: k -> k -> Type
-    -- k is implicitly bound by an invisible kind pattern
-    newtype instance Nat :: (k -> Type) -> (k -> Type) -> Type where
-      Nat :: (forall xx. f xx -> g xx) -> Nat f g
-
-    class Funct f where
-      type Codomain f :: Type
-    instance Funct ('KProxy :: KProxy o) where
-      -- o is implicitly bound by the kind signature
-      -- of the LHS type pattern ('KProxy)
-      type Codomain 'KProxy = NatTr (Proxy :: o -> Type)
-
--  The instance for an associated type can be omitted in class
-   instances. In that case, unless there is a default instance (see
-   :ref:`assoc-decl-defs`), the corresponding instance type is not
-   inhabited; i.e., only diverging expressions, such as ``undefined``,
-   can assume the type.
-
--  Although it is unusual, there (currently) can be *multiple* instances
-   for an associated family in a single instance declaration. For
-   example, this is legitimate: ::
-
-       instance GMapKey Flob where
-         data GMap Flob [v] = G1 v
-         data GMap Flob Int = G2 Int
-         ...
-
-   Here we give two data instance declarations, one in which the last
-   parameter is ``[v]``, and one for which it is ``Int``. Since you
-   cannot give any *subsequent* instances for ``(GMap Flob ...)``, this
-   facility is most useful when the free indexed parameter is of a kind
-   with a finite number of alternatives (unlike ``Type``).
-
--  When :extension:`ExplicitForAll` is enabled, type and kind variables can be
-   explicitly bound in associated data or type family instances in the same way
-   (and with the same restrictions) as :ref:`data-instance-declarations` or
-   :ref:`type-instance-declarations`. For example, adapting the above, the
-   following is accepted: ::
-
-     instance Eq (Elem [e]) => Collects [e] where
-       type forall e. Elem [e] = e
-
-.. _assoc-decl-defs:
-
-Associated type synonym defaults
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-It is possible for the class defining the associated type to specify a
-default for associated type instances. So for example, this is OK: ::
-
-    class IsBoolMap v where
-      type Key v
-      type instance Key v = Int
-
-      lookupKey :: Key v -> v -> Maybe Bool
-
-    instance IsBoolMap [(Int, Bool)] where
-      lookupKey = lookup
-
-In an ``instance`` declaration for the class, if no explicit
-``type instance`` declaration is given for the associated type, the
-default declaration is used instead, just as with default class methods.
-
-Note the following points:
-
--  The ``instance`` keyword is optional.
-
--  There can be at most one default declaration for an associated type
-   synonym.
-
--  A default declaration is not permitted for an associated *data* type.
-
--  The default declaration must mention only type *variables* on the
-   left hand side, and type variables may not be repeated on the left-hand
-   side. The right hand side must mention only type
-   variables that are explicitly bound on the left hand side. This restriction
-   is relaxed for *kind* variables, however, as the right hand side is allowed
-   to mention kind variables that are implicitly bound on the left hand side.
-
-   Like with :ref:`assoc-inst`, it is possible to explicitly bind type and kind
-   variables in default declarations with a ``forall`` by using the
-   :extension:`ExplicitForAll` language extension.
-
--  Unlike the associated type family declaration itself, the type variables of
-   the default instance are independent of those of the parent class.
-
-Here are some examples:
-
-::
-
-      class C (a :: Type) where
-        type F1 a :: Type
-        type instance F1 a = [a]     -- OK
-        type instance F1 a = a->a    -- BAD; only one default instance is allowed
-
-        type F2 b a                  -- OK; note the family has more type
-                                     --     variables than the class
-        type instance F2 c d = c->d  -- OK; you don't have to use 'a' in the type instance
-
-        type F3 a
-        type F3 [b] = b              -- BAD; only type variables allowed on the
-                                             LHS, and the argument to F3 is
-                                             instantiated to [b], which is not
-                                             a bare type variable
-
-        type F4 x y
-        type F4 x x = x              -- BAD; the type variable x is repeated on
-                                             the LHS
-
-        type F5 a
-        type F5 b = a                -- BAD; 'a' is not in scope  in the RHS
-
-        type F6 a :: [k]
-        type F6 a = ('[] :: [x])     -- OK; the kind variable x is implicitly
-                                            bound by an invisible kind pattern
-                                            on the LHS
-
-        type F7 a
-        type F7 a =
-          Proxy ('[] :: [x])         -- BAD; the kind variable x is not bound,
-                                             even by an invisible kind pattern
-
-        type F8 (x :: a) :: [a]
-        type F8 x = ('[] :: [a])     -- OK; the kind variable a is implicitly
-                                            bound by the kind signature of the
-                                            LHS type pattern
-
-        type F9 (a :: k)
-        type F9 a = Maybe a          -- BAD; the kind variable k is
-                                             instantiated to Type, which is not
-                                             a bare kind variable
-
-        type F10 (a :: j) (b :: k)
-        type F10 (a :: z) (b :: z)
-          = Proxy a                  -- BAD; the kind variable z is repeated,
-                                     -- as both j and k are instantiated to z
-
-        type F11 a b
-        type forall a b. F11 a b = a -- OK; LHS type variables can be
-                                        explicitly bound with 'forall'
-
-        type F12 (a :: k)
-        type F12 @k a = Proxy a      -- OK; visible kind application syntax is
-                                            permitted in default declarations
-
-.. _scoping-class-params:
-
-Scoping of class parameters
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-The visibility of class parameters in the right-hand side of associated
-family instances depends *solely* on the parameters of the family. As an
-example, consider the simple class declaration ::
-
-    class C a b where
-      data T a
-
-Only one of the two class parameters is a parameter to the data family.
-Hence, the following instance declaration is invalid: ::
-
-    instance C [c] d where
-      data T [c] = MkT (c, d)    -- WRONG!!  'd' is not in scope
-
-Here, the right-hand side of the data instance mentions the type
-variable ``d`` that does not occur in its left-hand side. We cannot
-admit such data instances as they would compromise type safety.
-
-Bear in mind that it is also possible for the *right*-hand side of an
-associated family instance to contain *kind* parameters (by using the
-:extension:`PolyKinds` extension). For instance, this class and instance are
-perfectly admissible: ::
-
-    class C k where
-      type T :: k
-
-    instance C (Maybe a) where
-      type T = (Nothing :: Maybe a)
-
-Here, although the right-hand side ``(Nothing :: Maybe a)`` mentions a kind
-variable ``a`` which does not occur on the left-hand side, this is acceptable,
-because ``a`` is *implicitly* bound by ``T``'s kind pattern.
-
-A kind variable can also be bound implicitly in a LHS type pattern, as in this
-example: ::
-
-    class C a where
-      type T (x :: a) :: [a]
-
-    instance C (Maybe a) where
-      type T x = ('[] :: [Maybe a])
-
-In ``('[] :: [Maybe a])``, the kind variable ``a`` is implicitly bound by the
-kind signature of the LHS type pattern ``x``.
-
-Instance contexts and associated type and data instances
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-Associated type and data instance declarations do not inherit any
-context specified on the enclosing instance. For type instance
-declarations, it is unclear what the context would mean. For data
-instance declarations, it is unlikely a user would want the context
-repeated for every data constructor. The only place where the context
-might likely be useful is in a ``deriving`` clause of an associated data
-instance. However, even here, the role of the outer instance context is
-murky. So, for clarity, we just stick to the rule above: the enclosing
-instance context is ignored. If you need to use a non-trivial context on
-a derived instance, use a :ghc-flag:`standalone deriving <-XStandaloneDeriving>`
-clause (at the top level).
-
-.. _data-family-import-export:
-
-Import and export
------------------
-
-The rules for export lists (Haskell Report `Section
-5.2 <http://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/modules.html#sect5.2>`__) needs
-adjustment for type families:
-
--  The form ``T(..)``, where ``T`` is a data family, names the family
-   ``T`` and all the in-scope constructors (whether in scope qualified
-   or unqualified) that are data instances of ``T``.
-
--  The form ``T(.., ci, .., fj, ..)``, where ``T`` is a data family,
-   names ``T`` and the specified constructors ``ci`` and fields ``fj``
-   as usual. The constructors and field names must belong to some data
-   instance of ``T``, but are not required to belong to the *same*
-   instance.
-
--  The form ``C(..)``, where ``C`` is a class, names the class ``C`` and
-   all its methods *and associated types*.
-
--  The form ``C(.., mi, .., type Tj, ..)``, where ``C`` is a class,
-   names the class ``C``, and the specified methods ``mi`` and
-   associated types ``Tj``. The types need a keyword "``type``" to
-   distinguish them from data constructors.
-
--  Whenever there is no export list and a data instance is defined, the
-   corresponding data family type constructor is exported along with
-   the new data constructors, regardless of whether the data family
-   is defined locally or in another module.
-
-.. _data-family-impexp-examples:
-
-Examples
-~~~~~~~~
-
-Recall our running ``GMapKey`` class example:
-
-::
-
-    class GMapKey k where
-      data GMap k :: Type -> Type
-      insert :: GMap k v -> k -> v -> GMap k v
-      lookup :: GMap k v -> k -> Maybe v
-      empty  :: GMap k v
-
-    instance (GMapKey a, GMapKey b) => GMapKey (Either a b) where
-      data GMap (Either a b) v = GMapEither (GMap a v) (GMap b v)
-      ...method declarations...
-
-Here are some export lists and their meaning:
-
--  ::
-
-     module GMap( GMapKey )
-
-   Exports just the class name.
-
--  ::
-
-     module GMap( GMapKey(..) )
-
-   Exports the class, the associated type ``GMap`` and the member functions
-   ``empty``, ``lookup``, and ``insert``. The data constructors of ``GMap`` (in
-   this case ``GMapEither``) are not exported.
-
--  ::
-
-     module GMap( GMapKey( type GMap, empty, lookup, insert ) )
-
-   Same as the previous item. Note the "``type``" keyword.
-
--  ::
-
-     module GMap( GMapKey(..), GMap(..) )
-
-   Same as previous item, but also exports all the data constructors for
-   ``GMap``, namely
-   ``GMapEither``.
-
--  ::
-
-     module GMap ( GMapKey( empty, lookup, insert), GMap(..) )
-
-   Same as previous item.
-
--  ::
-
-     module GMap ( GMapKey, empty, lookup, insert, GMap(..) )
-
-   Same as previous item.
-
-Two things to watch out for:
-
--  You cannot write ``GMapKey(type GMap(..))`` — i.e., sub-component
-   specifications cannot be nested. To specify ``GMap``\ 's data
-   constructors, you have to list it separately.
-
--  Consider this example: ::
-
-         module X where
-           data family D
-
-         module Y where
-           import X
-           data instance D Int = D1 | D2
-
-   Module ``Y`` exports all the entities defined in ``Y``, namely the data
-   constructors ``D1`` and ``D2``, and *implicitly* the data family ``D``,
-   even though it's defined in ``X``.
-   This means you can write ``import Y( D(D1,D2) )`` *without*
-   giving an explicit export list like this: ::
-
-            module Y( D(..) ) where ...
-       or   module Y( module Y, D ) where ...
-
-.. _data-family-impexp-instances:
-
-Instances
-~~~~~~~~~
-
-Family instances are implicitly exported, just like class instances.
-However, this applies only to the heads of instances, not to the data
-constructors an instance defines.
-
-.. _ty-fams-in-instances:
-
-Type families and instance declarations
----------------------------------------
-
-Type families require us to extend the rules for the form of instance
-heads, which are given in :ref:`flexible-instance-head`. Specifically:
-
--  Data type families may appear in an instance head
-
--  Type synonym families may not appear (at all) in an instance head
-
-The reason for the latter restriction is that there is no way to check
-for instance matching. Consider
-
-::
-
-       type family F a
-       type instance F Bool = Int
-
-       class C a
-
-       instance C Int
-       instance C (F a)
-
-Now a constraint ``(C (F Bool))`` would match both instances. The
-situation is especially bad because the type instance for ``F Bool``
-might be in another module, or even in a module that is not yet written.
-
-However, type class instances of instances of data families can be
-defined much like any other data type. For example, we can say
-
-::
-
-    data instance T Int = T1 Int | T2 Bool
-    instance Eq (T Int) where
-      (T1 i) == (T1 j) = i==j
-      (T2 i) == (T2 j) = i==j
-      _      == _      = False
-
-Note that class instances are always for particular *instances* of a
-data family and never for an entire family as a whole. This is for
-essentially the same reasons that we cannot define a toplevel function
-that performs pattern matching on the data constructors of *different*
-instances of a single type family. It would require a form of extensible
-case construct.
-
-Data instance declarations can also have ``deriving`` clauses. For
-example, we can write ::
-
-    data GMap () v = GMapUnit (Maybe v)
-                   deriving Show
-
-which implicitly defines an instance of the form ::
-
-    instance Show v => Show (GMap () v) where ...
-
-
-.. _injective-ty-fams:
-
-Injective type families
------------------------
-
-.. extension:: TypeFamilyDependencies
-    :shortdesc: Enable injective type families.
-        Implies :extension:`TypeFamilies`.
-
-    :implies: :extension:`TypeFamilies`
-    :since: 8.0.1
-
-    Allow functional dependency annotations on type families. This allows one to
-    define injective type families.
-
-Starting with GHC 8.0 type families can be annotated with injectivity
-information. This information is then used by GHC during type checking
-to resolve type ambiguities in situations where a type variable appears
-only under type family applications. Consider this contrived example: ::
-
-    type family Id a
-    type instance Id Int = Int
-    type instance Id Bool = Bool
-
-    id :: Id t -> Id t
-    id x = x
-
-Here the definition of ``id`` will be rejected because type variable ``t``
-appears only under type family applications and is thus ambiguous.  But this
-code will be accepted if we tell GHC that ``Id`` is injective, which means it
-will be possible to infer ``t`` at call sites from the type of the argument: ::
-
-    type family Id a = r | r -> a
-
-Injective type families are enabled with ``-XTypeFamilyDependencies`` language
-extension.  This extension implies ``-XTypeFamilies``.
-
-For full details on injective type families refer to Haskell Symposium
-2015 paper `Injective type families for
-Haskell <http://ics.p.lodz.pl/~stolarek/_media/pl:research:stolarek_peyton-jones_eisenberg_injectivity_extended.pdf>`__.
-
-.. _injective-ty-fams-syntax:
-
-Syntax of injectivity annotation
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-The injectivity annotation is added after the type family head and consists of
-two parts:
-
--  a type variable that names the result of a type family. Syntax:
-   ``= tyvar`` or ``= (tyvar :: kind)``. The type variable must be fresh.
-
--  an injectivity annotation of the form ``| A -> B``, where ``A`` is the
-   result type variable (see previous bullet) and ``B`` is a list of
-   argument type and kind variables in which type family is injective.
-   It is possible to omit some variables if the type family is not injective
-   in them.
-
-Examples: ::
-
-    type family Id a = result | result -> a where
-    type family F a b c = d | d -> a c b
-    type family G (a :: k) b c = foo | foo -> k b where
-
-For open and closed type families it is OK to name the result but skip
-the injectivity annotation. This is not the case for associated type
-synonyms, where the named result without injectivity annotation will be
-interpreted as associated type synonym default.
-
-.. _injective-ty-fams-typecheck:
-
-Verifying the injectivity annotation against type family equations
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-Once the user declares type family to be injective GHC must verify that
-this declaration is correct, i.e., that type family equations don't violate the
-injectivity annotation. A general idea is that if at least one equation
-(bullets (1), (2) and (3) below) or a pair of equations (bullets (4) and
-(5) below) violates the injectivity annotation then a type family is not
-injective in a way the user claims and an error is reported. In the bullets
-below *RHS* refers to the right-hand side of the type family equation
-being checked for injectivity. *LHS* refers to the arguments of that
-type family equation. Below are the rules followed when checking
-injectivity of a type family:
-
-1. If a RHS of a type family equation is a type family application GHC
-   reports that the type family is not injective.
-
-2. If a RHS of a type family equation is a bare type variable we require
-   that all LHS variables (including implicit kind variables) are also
-   bare. In other words, this has to be a sole equation of that type
-   family and it has to cover all possible patterns. If the patterns are
-   not covering GHC reports that the type family is not injective.
-
-3. If a LHS type variable that is declared as injective is not mentioned
-   on injective position
-   in the RHS GHC reports that the type family is not injective.
-   Injective position means either argument to a type constructor or
-   injective argument to a type family. Type inference can potentially
-   loop when looking under injective type families in the RHS, so this
-   requires :extension:`UndecidableInstances`; GHC suggests enabling
-   the flag when it is necessary.
-
-4. *Open type families* Open type families are typechecked
-   incrementally. This means that when a module is imported type family
-   instances contained in that module are checked against instances
-   present in already imported modules.
-
-   A pair of an open type family equations is checked by attempting to
-   unify their RHSs. If the RHSs don't unify this pair does not violate
-   injectivity annotation. If unification succeeds with a substitution
-   then LHSs of unified equations must be identical under that
-   substitution. If they are not identical then GHC reports that the
-   type family is not injective.
-
-5. In a *closed type family* all equations are ordered and in one place.
-   Equations are also checked pair-wise but this time an equation has to
-   be paired with all the preceding equations. Of course a
-   single-equation closed type family is trivially injective (unless
-   (1), (2) or (3) above holds).
-
-   When checking a pair of closed type family equations GHC tried to
-   unify their RHSs. If they don't unify this pair of equations does not
-   violate injectivity annotation. If the RHSs can be unified under some
-   substitution (possibly empty) then either the LHSs unify under the
-   same substitution or the LHS of the latter equation is subsumed by
-   earlier equations. If neither condition is met GHC reports that a
-   type family is not injective.
-
-Note that for the purpose of injectivity check in bullets (4) and (5)
-GHC uses a special variant of unification algorithm that treats type
-family applications as possibly unifying with anything.
-
-.. _promotion:
-
-Datatype promotion
-==================
-
-.. extension:: DataKinds
-    :shortdesc: Enable datatype promotion.
-
-    :since: 7.4.1
-
-    Allow promotion of data types to kind level.
-
-This section describes *data type promotion*, an extension to the kind
-system that complements kind polymorphism. It is enabled by
-:extension:`DataKinds`, and described in more detail in the paper `Giving
-Haskell a Promotion <http://dreixel.net/research/pdf/ghp.pdf>`__, which
-appeared at TLDI 2012.
-
-Motivation
-----------
-
-Standard Haskell has a rich type language. Types classify terms and
-serve to avoid many common programming mistakes. The kind language,
-however, is relatively simple, distinguishing only regular types (kind
-``Type``) and type constructors (e.g. kind ``Type -> Type -> Type``).
-In particular when using advanced type
-system features, such as type families (:ref:`type-families`) or GADTs
-(:ref:`gadt`), this simple kind system is insufficient, and fails to
-prevent simple errors. Consider the example of type-level natural
-numbers, and length-indexed vectors: ::
-
-    data Ze
-    data Su n
-
-    data Vec :: Type -> Type -> Type where
-      Nil  :: Vec a Ze
-      Cons :: a -> Vec a n -> Vec a (Su n)
-
-The kind of ``Vec`` is ``Type -> Type -> Type``. This means that, e.g.,
-``Vec Int Char`` is a well-kinded type, even though this is not what we
-intend when defining length-indexed vectors.
-
-With :extension:`DataKinds`, the example above can then be rewritten to: ::
-
-    data Nat = Ze | Su Nat
-
-    data Vec :: Type -> Nat -> Type where
-      Nil  :: Vec a 'Ze
-      Cons :: a -> Vec a n -> Vec a ('Su n)
-
-With the improved kind of ``Vec``, things like ``Vec Int Char`` are now
-ill-kinded, and GHC will report an error.
-
-Overview
---------
-
-With :extension:`DataKinds`, GHC automatically promotes every datatype
-to be a kind and its (value) constructors to be type constructors. The
-following types ::
-
-    data Nat = Zero | Succ Nat
-
-    data List a = Nil | Cons a (List a)
-
-    data Pair a b = Pair a b
-
-    data Sum a b = L a | R b
-
-give rise to the following kinds and type constructors (where promoted
-constructors are prefixed by a tick ``'``): ::
-
-    Nat :: Type
-    'Zero :: Nat
-    'Succ :: Nat -> Nat
-
-    List :: Type -> Type
-    'Nil  :: forall k. List k
-    'Cons :: forall k. k -> List k -> List k
-
-    Pair  :: Type -> Type -> Type
-    'Pair :: forall k1 k2. k1 -> k2 -> Pair k1 k2
-
-    Sum :: Type -> Type -> Type
-    'L :: k1 -> Sum k1 k2
-    'R :: k2 -> Sum k1 k2
-
-Virtually all data constructors, even those with rich kinds, can be promoted.
-There are only a couple of exceptions to this rule:
-
--  Data family instance constructors cannot be promoted at the moment. GHC's
-   type theory just isn’t up to the task of promoting data families, which
-   requires full dependent types.
-
--  Data constructors with contexts that contain non-equality constraints cannot
-   be promoted. For example: ::
-
-     data Foo :: Type -> Type where
-       MkFoo1 :: a ~ Int         => Foo a    -- promotable
-       MkFoo2 :: a ~~ Int        => Foo a    -- promotable
-       MkFoo3 :: Show a          => Foo a    -- not promotable
-
-   ``MkFoo1`` and ``MkFoo2`` can be promoted, since their contexts
-   only involve equality-oriented constraints. However, ``MkFoo3``'s context
-   contains a non-equality constraint ``Show a``, and thus cannot be promoted.
-
-.. _promotion-syntax:
-
-Distinguishing between types and constructors
----------------------------------------------
-
-In the examples above, all promoted constructors are prefixed with a single
-quote mark ``'``. This mark tells GHC to look in the data constructor namespace
-for a name, not the type (constructor) namespace. Consider ::
-
-    data P = MkP    -- 1
-
-    data Prom = P   -- 2
-
-We can thus distinguish the type ``P`` (which has a constructor ``MkP``)
-from the promoted data constructor ``'P`` (of kind ``Prom``).
-
-As a convenience, GHC allows you to omit the quote mark when the name is
-unambiguous. However, our experience has shown that the quote mark helps
-to make code more readable and less error-prone. GHC thus supports
-:ghc-flag:`-Wunticked-promoted-constructors` that will warn you if you
-use a promoted data constructor without a preceding quote mark.
-
-Just as in the case of Template Haskell (:ref:`th-syntax`), GHC gets
-confused if you put a quote mark before a data constructor whose second
-character is a quote mark. In this case, just put a space between the
-promotion quote and the data constructor: ::
-
-  data T = A'
-  type S = 'A'   -- ERROR: looks like a character
-  type R = ' A'  -- OK: promoted `A'`
-
-.. _promoted-lists-and-tuples:
-
-Promoted list and tuple types
------------------------------
-
-With :extension:`DataKinds`, Haskell's list and tuple types are natively
-promoted to kinds, and enjoy the same convenient syntax at the type
-level, albeit prefixed with a quote: ::
-
-    data HList :: [Type] -> Type where
-      HNil  :: HList '[]
-      HCons :: a -> HList t -> HList (a ': t)
-
-    data Tuple :: (Type,Type) -> Type where
-      Tuple :: a -> b -> Tuple '(a,b)
-
-    foo0 :: HList '[]
-    foo0 = HNil
-
-    foo1 :: HList '[Int]
-    foo1 = HCons (3::Int) HNil
-
-    foo2 :: HList [Int, Bool]
-    foo2 = ...
-
-For type-level lists of *two or more elements*, such as the signature of
-``foo2`` above, the quote may be omitted because the meaning is unambiguous. But
-for lists of one or zero elements (as in ``foo0`` and ``foo1``), the quote is
-required, because the types ``[]`` and ``[Int]`` have existing meanings in
-Haskell.
-
-.. note::
-    The declaration for ``HCons`` also requires :extension:`TypeOperators`
-    because of infix type operator ``(':)``
-
-
-.. _promotion-existentials:
-
-Promoting existential data constructors
----------------------------------------
-
-Note that we do promote existential data constructors that are otherwise
-suitable. For example, consider the following: ::
-
-    data Ex :: Type where
-      MkEx :: forall a. a -> Ex
-
-Both the type ``Ex`` and the data constructor ``MkEx`` get promoted,
-with the polymorphic kind ``'MkEx :: forall k. k -> Ex``. Somewhat
-surprisingly, you can write a type family to extract the member of a
-type-level existential: ::
-
-    type family UnEx (ex :: Ex) :: k
-    type instance UnEx (MkEx x) = x
-
-At first blush, ``UnEx`` seems poorly-kinded. The return kind ``k`` is
-not mentioned in the arguments, and thus it would seem that an instance
-would have to return a member of ``k`` *for any* ``k``. However, this is
-not the case. The type family ``UnEx`` is a kind-indexed type family.
-The return kind ``k`` is an implicit parameter to ``UnEx``. The
-elaborated definitions are as follows (where implicit parameters are
-denoted by braces): ::
-
-    type family UnEx {k :: Type} (ex :: Ex) :: k
-    type instance UnEx {k} (MkEx @k x) = x
-
-Thus, the instance triggers only when the implicit parameter to ``UnEx``
-matches the implicit parameter to ``MkEx``. Because ``k`` is actually a
-parameter to ``UnEx``, the kind is not escaping the existential, and the
-above code is valid.
-
-See also :ghc-ticket:`7347`.
-
-.. _type-in-type:
-.. _kind-polymorphism:
-
-Kind polymorphism
-==================================
-
-.. extension:: TypeInType
-    :shortdesc: Deprecated. Enable kind polymorphism and datatype promotion.
-
-    :implies: :extension:`PolyKinds`, :extension:`DataKinds`, :extension:`KindSignatures`
-    :since: 8.0.1
-
-    The extension :extension:`TypeInType` is now deprecated: its sole effect is
-    to switch on :extension:`PolyKinds`
-    (and hence :extension:`KindSignatures`) and :extension:`DataKinds`.
-
-.. extension:: PolyKinds
-    :shortdesc: Enable kind polymorphism.
-        Implies :extension:`KindSignatures`.
-
-    :implies: :extension:`KindSignatures`
-    :since: 7.4.1
-
-    Allow kind polymorphic types.
-
-This section describes GHC's kind system, as it appears in version 8.0 and beyond.
-The kind system as described here is always in effect, with or without extensions,
-although it is a conservative extension beyond standard Haskell. The extensions
-above simply enable syntax and tweak the inference algorithm to allow users to
-take advantage of the extra expressiveness of GHC's kind system.
-
-Overview of kind polymorphism
------------------------------
-
-Consider inferring the kind for ::
-
-  data App f a = MkApp (f a)
-
-In Haskell 98, the inferred kind for ``App`` is ``(Type -> Type) -> Type ->
-Type``. But this is overly specific, because another suitable Haskell 98 kind
-for ``App`` is ``((Type -> Type) -> Type) -> (Type -> Type) -> Type``, where the
-kind assigned to ``a`` is ``Type -> Type``. Indeed, without kind signatures
-(:extension:`KindSignatures`), it is necessary to use a dummy constructor to get
-a Haskell compiler to infer the second kind. With kind polymorphism
-(:extension:`PolyKinds`), GHC infers the kind ``forall k. (k -> Type) -> k ->
-Type`` for ``App``, which is its most general kind.
-
-Thus, the chief benefit of kind polymorphism is that we can now infer these
-most general kinds and use ``App`` at a variety of kinds: ::
-
-  App Maybe Int   -- `k` is instantiated to Type
-
-  data T a = MkT (a Int)    -- `a` is inferred to have kind (Type -> Type)
-  App T Maybe     -- `k` is instantiated to (Type -> Type)
-
-Overview of Type-in-Type
-------------------------
-
-GHC 8 extends the idea of kind polymorphism by declaring that types and kinds
-are indeed one and the same. Nothing within GHC distinguishes between types
-and kinds. Another way of thinking about this is that the type ``Bool`` and
-the "promoted kind" ``Bool`` are actually identical. (Note that term
-``True`` and the type ``'True`` are still distinct, because the former can
-be used in expressions and the latter in types.) This lack of distinction
-between types and kinds is a hallmark of dependently typed languages.
-Full dependently typed languages also remove the difference between expressions
-and types, but doing that in GHC is a story for another day.
-
-One simplification allowed by combining types and kinds is that the type of
-``Type`` is just ``Type``. It is true that the ``Type :: Type`` axiom can lead
-to non-termination, but this is not a problem in GHC, as we already have other
-means of non-terminating programs in both types and expressions. This decision
-(among many, many others) *does* mean that despite the expressiveness of GHC's
-type system, a "proof" you write in Haskell is not an irrefutable mathematical
-proof. GHC promises only partial correctness, that if your programs compile and
-run to completion, their results indeed have the types assigned. It makes no
-claim about programs that do not finish in a finite amount of time.
-
-To learn more about this decision and the design of GHC under the hood
-please see the `paper <http://www.seas.upenn.edu/~sweirich/papers/fckinds.pdf>`__
-introducing this kind system to GHC/Haskell.
-
-Principles of kind inference
-----------------------------
-
-Generally speaking, when :extension:`PolyKinds` is on, GHC tries to infer the
-most general kind for a declaration.
-In many cases (for example, in a datatype declaration)
-the definition has a right-hand side to inform kind
-inference. But that is not always the case. Consider ::
-
-    type family F a
-
-Type family declarations have no right-hand side, but GHC must still
-infer a kind for ``F``. Since there are no constraints, it could infer
-``F :: forall k1 k2. k1 -> k2``, but that seems *too* polymorphic. So
-GHC defaults those entirely-unconstrained kind variables to ``Type`` and we
-get ``F :: Type -> Type``. You can still declare ``F`` to be kind-polymorphic
-using kind signatures: ::
-
-    type family F1 a                -- F1 :: Type -> Type
-    type family F2 (a :: k)         -- F2 :: forall k. k -> Type
-    type family F3 a :: k           -- F3 :: forall k. Type -> k
-    type family F4 (a :: k1) :: k2  -- F4 :: forall k1 k2. k1 -> k2
-
-The general principle is this:
-
--  When there is a right-hand side, GHC infers the most polymorphic
-   kind consistent with the right-hand side. Examples: ordinary data
-   type and GADT declarations, class declarations. In the case of a
-   class declaration the role of "right hand side" is played by the
-   class method signatures.
-
--  When there is no right hand side, GHC defaults argument and result
-   kinds to ``Type``, except when directed otherwise by a kind signature.
-   Examples: data and open type family declarations.
-
-This rule has occasionally-surprising consequences (see
-:ghc-ticket:`10132`). ::
-
-    class C a where    -- Class declarations are generalised
-                       -- so C :: forall k. k -> Constraint
-      data D1 a        -- No right hand side for these two family
-      type F1 a        -- declarations, but the class forces (a :: k)
-                       -- so   D1, F1 :: forall k. k -> Type
-
-    data D2 a   -- No right-hand side so D2 :: Type -> Type
-    type F2 a   -- No right-hand side so F2 :: Type -> Type
-
-The kind-polymorphism from the class declaration makes ``D1``
-kind-polymorphic, but not so ``D2``; and similarly ``F1``, ``F1``.
-
-.. _inferring-variable-order:
-
-Inferring the order of variables in a type/class declaration
-------------------------------------------------------------
-
-It is possible to get intricate dependencies among the type variables
-introduced in a type or class declaration. Here is an example::
-
-  data T a (b :: k) c = MkT (a c)
-
-After analysing this declaration, GHC will discover that ``a`` and
-``c`` can be kind-polymorphic, with ``a :: k2 -> Type`` and
-``c :: k2``. We thus infer the following kind::
-
-  T :: forall {k2 :: Type} (k :: Type). (k2 -> Type) -> k -> k2 -> Type
-
-Note that ``k2`` is placed *before* ``k``, and that ``k`` is placed *before*
-``a``. Also, note that ``k2`` is written here in braces. As explained with
-:extension:`TypeApplications` (:ref:`inferred-vs-specified`),
-type and kind variables that GHC generalises
-over, but not written in the original program, are not available for visible
-type application. (These are called *inferred* variables.)
-Such variables are written in braces with
-:ghc-flag:`-fprint-explicit-foralls` enabled.
-
-The general principle is this:
-
-  * Variables not available for type application come first.
-
-  * Then come variables the user has written, implicitly brought into scope
-    in a type variable's kind.
-
-  * Lastly come the normal type variables of a declaration.
-
-  * Variables not given an explicit ordering by the user are sorted according
-    to ScopedSort (:ref:`ScopedSort`).
-
-With the ``T`` example above, we could bind ``k`` *after* ``a``; doing so
-would not violate dependency concerns. However, it would violate our general
-principle, and so ``k`` comes first.
-
-Sometimes, this ordering does not respect dependency. For example::
-
-  data T2 k (a :: k) (c :: Proxy '[a, b])
-
-It must be that ``a`` and ``b`` have the same kind. Note also that ``b``
-is implicitly declared in ``c``\'s kind. Thus, according to our general
-principle, ``b`` must come *before* ``k``. However, ``b`` *depends on*
-``k``. We thus reject ``T2`` with a suitable error message.
-
-In associated types, we order the type variables as if the type family was a
-top-level declaration, ignoring the visibilities of the class's type variable
-binders. Here is an example: ::
-
-  class C (a :: k) b where
-    type F (c :: j) (d :: Proxy m) a b
-
-We infer these kinds::
-
-  C :: forall {k1 :: Type} (k :: Type). k -> k1 -> Constraint
-  F :: forall {k1 :: Type} {k2 :: Type} {k3 :: Type} j (m :: k1).
-       j -> Proxy m -> k2 -> k3 -> Type
-
-Note that the kind of ``a`` is specified in the kind of ``C`` but inferred in
-the kind of ``F``.
-
-The "general principle" described here is meant to make all this more
-predictable for users. It would not be hard to extend GHC to relax
-this principle. If you should want a change here, consider writing
-a `proposal <https://github.com/ghc-proposals/ghc-proposals/>`_ to
-do so.
-
-.. index::
-   single: CUSK
-   single: complete user-supplied kind signature
-
-.. _complete-kind-signatures:
-
-Complete user-supplied kind signatures and polymorphic recursion
-----------------------------------------------------------------
-
-.. extension:: CUSKs
-    :shortdesc: Enable detection of complete user-supplied kind signatures.
-
-    :since: 8.10.1
-
-NB! This is a legacy feature, see :extension:`StandaloneKindSignatures` for the
-modern replacement.
-
-Just as in type inference, kind inference for recursive types can only
-use *monomorphic* recursion. Consider this (contrived) example: ::
-
-    data T m a = MkT (m a) (T Maybe (m a))
-    -- GHC infers kind  T :: (Type -> Type) -> Type -> Type
-
-The recursive use of ``T`` forced the second argument to have kind
-``Type``. However, just as in type inference, you can achieve polymorphic
-recursion by giving a *complete user-supplied kind signature* (or CUSK)
-for ``T``. A CUSK is present when all argument kinds and the result kind
-are known, without any need for inference. For example: ::
-
-    data T (m :: k -> Type) :: k -> Type where
-      MkT :: m a -> T Maybe (m a) -> T m a
-
-The complete user-supplied kind signature specifies the polymorphic kind
-for ``T``, and this signature is used for all the calls to ``T``
-including the recursive ones. In particular, the recursive use of ``T``
-is at kind ``Type``.
-
-What exactly is considered to be a "complete user-supplied kind
-signature" for a type constructor? These are the forms:
-
--  For a datatype, every type variable must be annotated with a kind. In
-   a GADT-style declaration, there may also be a kind signature (with a
-   top-level ``::`` in the header), but the presence or absence of this
-   annotation does not affect whether or not the declaration has a
-   complete signature. ::
-
-       data T1 :: (k -> Type) -> k -> Type       where ...
-       -- Yes;  T1 :: forall k. (k->Type) -> k -> Type
-
-       data T2 (a :: k -> Type) :: k -> Type     where ...
-       -- Yes;  T2 :: forall k. (k->Type) -> k -> Type
-
-       data T3 (a :: k -> Type) (b :: k) :: Type where ...
-       -- Yes;  T3 :: forall k. (k->Type) -> k -> Type
-
-       data T4 (a :: k -> Type) (b :: k)      where ...
-       -- Yes;  T4 :: forall k. (k->Type) -> k -> Type
-
-       data T5 a (b :: k) :: Type             where ...
-       -- No;  kind is inferred
-
-       data T6 a b                         where ...
-       -- No;  kind is inferred
-
--  For a datatype with a top-level ``::``: all kind variables introduced after
-   the ``::`` must be explicitly quantified. ::
-
-     data T1 :: k -> Type            -- No CUSK: `k` is not explicitly quantified
-     data T2 :: forall k. k -> Type  -- CUSK: `k` is bound explicitly
-     data T3 :: forall (k :: Type). k -> Type   -- still a CUSK
-
--  For a newtype, the rules are the same as they are for a data type
-   unless :extension:`UnliftedNewtypes` is enabled.
-   With :extension:`UnliftedNewtypes`, the type constructor
-   only has a CUSK if a kind signature is present. As with a datatype
-   with a top-level ``::``, all kind variables must introduced after
-   the ``::`` must be explicitly quantified ::
-
-       {-# LANGUAGE UnliftedNewtypes #-}
-       newtype N1 where                 -- No; missing kind signature
-       newtype N2 :: TYPE 'IntRep where -- Yes; kind signature present
-       newtype N3 (a :: Type) where     -- No; missing kind signature
-       newtype N4 :: k -> Type where    -- No; `k` is not explicitly quantified
-       newtype N5 :: forall (k :: Type). k -> Type where -- Yes; good signature
-
--  For a class, every type variable must be annotated with a kind.
-
--  For a type synonym, every type variable and the result type must all
-   be annotated with kinds: ::
-
-       type S1 (a :: k) = (a :: k)    -- Yes   S1 :: forall k. k -> k
-       type S2 (a :: k) = a           -- No    kind is inferred
-       type S3 (a :: k) = Proxy a     -- No    kind is inferred
-
-   Note that in ``S2`` and ``S3``, the kind of the right-hand side is
-   rather apparent, but it is still not considered to have a complete
-   signature -- no inference can be done before detecting the signature.
-
--  An un-associated open type or data family declaration *always* has a CUSK;
-   un-annotated type variables default to kind ``Type``: ::
-
-       data family D1 a                  -- D1 :: Type -> Type
-       data family D2 (a :: k)           -- D2 :: forall k. k -> Type
-       data family D3 (a :: k) :: Type   -- D3 :: forall k. k -> Type
-       type family S1 a :: k -> Type     -- S1 :: forall k. Type -> k -> Type
-
--  An associated type or data family declaration has a CUSK precisely if
-   its enclosing class has a CUSK. ::
-
-       class C a where                -- no CUSK
-         type AT a b                  -- no CUSK, b is defaulted
-
-       class D (a :: k) where         -- yes CUSK
-         type AT2 a b                 -- yes CUSK, b is defaulted
-
--  A closed type family has a complete signature when all of its type
-   variables are annotated and a return kind (with a top-level ``::``)
-   is supplied.
-
-It is possible to write a datatype that syntactically has a CUSK (according to
-the rules above) but actually requires some inference. As a very contrived
-example, consider ::
-
-  data Proxy a           -- Proxy :: forall k. k -> Type
-  data X (a :: Proxy k)
-
-According to the rules above ``X`` has a CUSK. Yet, the kind of ``k`` is undetermined.
-It is thus quantified over, giving ``X`` the kind ``forall k1 (k :: k1). Proxy k -> Type``.
-
-The detection of CUSKs is enabled by the :extension:`CUSKs` flag, which is
-switched on by default. This extension is scheduled for deprecation to be
-replaced with :extension:`StandaloneKindSignatures`.
-
-.. index::
-   single: standalone kind signature
-
-.. _standalone-kind-signatures:
-
-Standalone kind signatures and polymorphic recursion
-----------------------------------------------------
-
-.. extension:: StandaloneKindSignatures
-    :shortdesc: Allow the use of standalone kind signatures.
-
-    :implies: :extension:`NoCUSKs`
-    :since: 8.10.1
-
-Just as in type inference, kind inference for recursive types can only
-use *monomorphic* recursion. Consider this (contrived) example: ::
-
-    data T m a = MkT (m a) (T Maybe (m a))
-    -- GHC infers kind  T :: (Type -> Type) -> Type -> Type
-
-The recursive use of ``T`` forced the second argument to have kind
-``Type``. However, just as in type inference, you can achieve polymorphic
-recursion by giving a *standalone kind signature* for ``T``: ::
-
-    type T :: (k -> Type) -> k -> Type
-    data T m a = MkT (m a) (T Maybe (m a))
-
-The standalone kind signature specifies the polymorphic kind
-for ``T``, and this signature is used for all the calls to ``T``
-including the recursive ones. In particular, the recursive use of ``T``
-is at kind ``Type``.
-
-While a standalone kind signature determines the kind of a type constructor, it
-does not determine its arity. This is of particular importance for type
-families and type synonyms, as they cannot be partially applied. See
-:ref:`type-family-declarations` for more information about arity.
-
-The arity can be specified using explicit binders and inline kind annotations::
-
-    -- arity F0 = 0
-    type F0 :: forall k. k -> Type
-    type family F0 :: forall k. k -> Type
-
-    -- arity F1 = 1
-    type F1 :: forall k. k -> Type
-    type family F1 :: k -> Type
-
-    -- arity F2 = 2
-    type F2 :: forall k. k -> Type
-    type family F2 a :: Type
-
-In absence of an inline kind annotation, the inferred arity includes all
-explicitly bound parameters and all immediately following invisible
-parameters::
-
-    -- arity FD1 = 1
-    type FD1 :: forall k. k -> Type
-    type FD1
-
-    -- arity FD2 = 2
-    type FD2 :: forall k. k -> Type
-    type FD2 a
-
-Note that ``F0``, ``F1``, ``F2``, ``FD1``, and ``FD2`` all have identical
-standalone kind signatures. The arity is inferred from the type family header.
-
-Standalone kind signatures and declaration headers
---------------------------------------------------
-
-GHC requires that in the presence of a standalone kind signature, data
-declarations must bind all their inputs. For example: ::
-
-    type Prox1 :: k -> Type
-    data Prox1 a = MkProx1
-      -- OK.
-
-    type Prox2 :: k -> Type
-    data Prox2 = MkProx2
-      -- Error:
-      --   • Expected a type, but found something with kind ‘k -> Type’
-      --   • In the data type declaration for ‘Prox2’
-
-
-GADT-style data declarations may either bind their inputs or use an inline
-signature in addition to the standalone kind signature: ::
-
-    type GProx1 :: k -> Type
-    data GProx1 a where MkGProx1 :: GProx1 a
-      -- OK.
-
-    type GProx2 :: k -> Type
-    data GProx2 where MkGProx2 :: GProx2 a
-      -- Error:
-      --   • Expected a type, but found something with kind ‘k -> Type’
-      --   • In the data type declaration for ‘GProx2’
-
-    type GProx3 :: k -> Type
-    data GProx3 :: k -> Type where MkGProx3 :: GProx3 a
-      -- OK.
-
-    type GProx4 :: k -> Type
-    data GProx4 :: w where MkGProx4 :: GProx4 a
-      -- OK, w ~ (k -> Type)
-
-Classes are subject to the same rules: ::
-
-    type C1 :: Type -> Constraint
-    class C1 a
-      -- OK.
-
-    type C2 :: Type -> Constraint
-    class C2
-      -- Error:
-      --   • Couldn't match expected kind ‘Constraint’
-      --                 with actual kind ‘Type -> Constraint’
-      --   • In the class declaration for ‘C2’
-
-On the other hand, type families are exempt from this rule: ::
-
-    type F :: Type -> Type
-    type family F
-      -- OK.
-
-Data families are tricky territory. Their headers are exempt from this rule,
-but their instances are not: ::
-
-    type T :: k -> Type
-    data family T
-      -- OK.
-
-    data instance T Int = MkT1
-      -- OK.
-
-    data instance T = MkT3
-      -- Error:
-      --   • Expecting one more argument to ‘T’
-      --     Expected a type, but ‘T’ has kind ‘k0 -> Type’
-      --   • In the data instance declaration for ‘T’
-
-This also applies to GADT-style data instances: ::
-
-    data instance T (a :: Nat) where MkN4 :: T 4
-                                     MKN9 :: T 9
-      -- OK.
-
-    data instance T :: Symbol -> Type where MkSN :: T "Neptune"
-                                            MkSJ :: T "Jupiter"
-      -- OK.
-
-    data instance T where MkT4 :: T x
-      -- Error:
-      --   • Expecting one more argument to ‘T’
-      --     Expected a type, but ‘T’ has kind ‘k0 -> Type’
-      --   • In the data instance declaration for ‘T’
-
-
-Kind inference in closed type families
---------------------------------------
-
-Although all open type families are considered to have a complete
-user-supplied kind signature, we can relax this condition for closed
-type families, where we have equations on which to perform kind
-inference. GHC will infer kinds for the arguments and result types of a
-closed type family.
-
-GHC supports *kind-indexed* type families, where the family matches both
-on the kind and type. GHC will *not* infer this behaviour without a
-complete user-supplied kind signature, as doing so would sometimes infer
-non-principal types. Indeed, we can see kind-indexing as a form
-of polymorphic recursion, where a type is used at a kind other than
-its most general in its own definition.
-
-For example: ::
-
-    type family F1 a where
-      F1 True  = False
-      F1 False = True
-      F1 x     = x
-    -- F1 fails to compile: kind-indexing is not inferred
-
-    type family F2 (a :: k) where
-      F2 True  = False
-      F2 False = True
-      F2 x     = x
-    -- F2 fails to compile: no complete signature
-
-    type family F3 (a :: k) :: k where
-      F3 True  = False
-      F3 False = True
-      F3 x     = x
-    -- OK
-
-Kind inference in class instance declarations
----------------------------------------------
-
-Consider the following example of a poly-kinded class and an instance
-for it: ::
-
-    class C a where
-      type F a
-
-    instance C b where
-      type F b = b -> b
-
-In the class declaration, nothing constrains the kind of the type ``a``,
-so it becomes a poly-kinded type variable ``(a :: k)``. Yet, in the
-instance declaration, the right-hand side of the associated type
-instance ``b -> b`` says that ``b`` must be of kind ``Type``. GHC could
-theoretically propagate this information back into the instance head,
-and make that instance declaration apply only to type of kind ``Type``, as
-opposed to types of any kind. However, GHC does *not* do this.
-
-In short: GHC does *not* propagate kind information from the members of
-a class instance declaration into the instance declaration head.
-
-This lack of kind inference is simply an engineering problem within GHC,
-but getting it to work would make a substantial change to the inference
-infrastructure, and it's not clear the payoff is worth it. If you want
-to restrict ``b``\ 's kind in the instance above, just use a kind
-signature in the instance head.
-
-Kind inference in type signatures
----------------------------------
-
-When kind-checking a type, GHC considers only what is written in that
-type when figuring out how to generalise the type's kind.
-
-For example,
-consider these definitions (with :extension:`ScopedTypeVariables`): ::
-
-  data Proxy a    -- Proxy :: forall k. k -> Type
-  p :: forall a. Proxy a
-  p = Proxy :: Proxy (a :: Type)
-
-GHC reports an error, saying that the kind of ``a`` should be a kind variable
-``k``, not ``Type``. This is because, by looking at the type signature
-``forall a. Proxy a``, GHC assumes ``a``'s kind should be generalised, not
-restricted to be ``Type``. The function definition is then rejected for being
-more specific than its type signature.
-
-.. _explicit-kind-quantification:
-
-Explicit kind quantification
-----------------------------
-
-Enabled by :extension:`PolyKinds`, GHC supports explicit kind quantification,
-as in these examples: ::
-
-  data Proxy :: forall k. k -> Type
-  f :: (forall k (a :: k). Proxy a -> ()) -> Int
-
-Note that the second example has a ``forall`` that binds both a kind ``k`` and
-a type variable ``a`` of kind ``k``. In general, there is no limit to how
-deeply nested this sort of dependency can work. However, the dependency must
-be well-scoped: ``forall (a :: k) k. ...`` is an error.
-
-Implicit quantification in type synonyms and type family instances
-------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-Consider the scoping rules for type synonyms and type family instances, such as
-these::
-
-   type          TS a (b :: k) = <rhs>
-   type instance TF a (b :: k) = <rhs>
-
-The basic principle is that all variables mentioned on the right hand side
-``<rhs>`` must be bound on the left hand side::
-
-  type TS a (b :: k) = (k, a, Proxy b)    -- accepted
-  type TS a (b :: k) = (k, a, Proxy b, z) -- rejected: z not in scope
-
-But there is one exception: free variables mentioned in the outermost kind
-signature on the right hand side are quantified implicitly. Thus, in the
-following example the variables ``a``, ``b``, and ``k`` are all in scope on the
-right hand side of ``S``::
-
-  type S a b = <rhs> :: k -> k
-
-The reason for this exception is that there may be no other way to bind ``k``.
-For example, suppose we wanted ``S`` to have the the following kind with an
-*invisible* parameter ``k``::
-
-  S :: forall k. Type -> Type -> k -> k
-
-In this case, we could not simply bind ``k`` on the left-hand side, as ``k``
-would become a *visible* parameter::
-
-  type S k a b = <rhs> :: k -> k
-  S :: forall k -> Type -> Type -> k -> k
-
-Note that we only look at the *outermost* kind signature to decide which
-variables to quantify implicitly. As a counter-example, consider ``M1``: ::
-
-  type M1 = 'Just ('Nothing :: Maybe k)    -- rejected: k not in scope
-
-Here, the kind signature is hidden inside ``'Just``, and there is no outermost
-kind signature. We can fix this example by providing an outermost kind signature: ::
-
-  type M2 = 'Just ('Nothing :: Maybe k) :: Maybe (Maybe k)
-
-Here, ``k`` is brought into scope by ``:: Maybe (Maybe k)``.
-
-A kind signature is considered to be outermost regardless of redundant
-parentheses: ::
-
-  type P =    'Nothing :: Maybe a    -- accepted
-  type P = ((('Nothing :: Maybe a))) -- accepted
-
-Closed type family instances are subject to the same rules: ::
-
-  type family F where
-    F = 'Nothing :: Maybe k            -- accepted
-
-  type family F where
-    F = 'Just ('Nothing :: Maybe k)    -- rejected: k not in scope
-
-  type family F where
-    F = 'Just ('Nothing :: Maybe k) :: Maybe (Maybe k)  -- accepted
-
-  type family F :: Maybe (Maybe k) where
-    F = 'Just ('Nothing :: Maybe k)    -- rejected: k not in scope
-
-  type family F :: Maybe (Maybe k) where
-    F @k = 'Just ('Nothing :: Maybe k) -- accepted
-
-Kind variables can also be quantified in *visible* positions. Consider the
-following two examples: ::
-
-  data ProxyKInvis (a :: k)
-  data ProxyKVis k (a :: k)
-
-In the first example, the kind variable ``k`` is an *invisible* argument to
-``ProxyKInvis``. In other words, a user does not need to instantiate ``k``
-explicitly, as kind inference automatically determines what ``k`` should be.
-For instance, in ``ProxyKInvis True``, ``k`` is inferred to be ``Bool``.
-This is reflected in the kind of ``ProxyKInvis``: ::
-
-  ProxyKInvis :: forall k. k -> Type
-
-In the second example, ``k`` is a *visible* argument to ``ProxyKVis``. That is
-to say, ``k`` is an argument that users must provide explicitly when applying
-``ProxyKVis``. For example, ``ProxyKVis Bool True`` is a well formed type.
-
-What is the kind of ``ProxyKVis``? One might say
-``forall k. Type -> k -> Type``, but this isn't quite right, since this would
-allow incorrect things like ``ProxyKVis Bool Int``, which should be rejected
-due to the fact that ``Int`` is not of kind ``Bool``. The key observation is that
-the kind of the second argument *depend* on the first argument. GHC indicates
-this dependency in the syntax that it gives for the kind of ``ProxyKVis``: ::
-
-  ProxyKVis :: forall k -> k -> Type
-
-This kind is similar to the kind of ``ProxyKInvis``, but with a key difference:
-the type variables quantified by the ``forall`` are followed by an arrow
-(``->``), not a dot (``.``). This is a visible, dependent quantifier. It is
-visible in that it the user must pass in a type for ``k`` explicitly, and it is
-dependent in the sense that ``k`` appears later in the kind of ``ProxyKVis``.
-As a counterpart, the ``k`` binder in ``forall k. k -> Type`` can be thought
-of as an *invisible*, dependent quantifier.
-
-GHC permits writing kinds with this syntax, provided that the
-``ExplicitForAll`` and ``PolyKinds`` language extensions are enabled. Just
-like the invisible ``forall``, one can put explicit kind signatures on visibly
-bound kind variables, so the following is syntactically valid: ::
-
-  ProxyKVis :: forall (k :: Type) -> k -> Type
-
-Currently, the ability to write visible, dependent quantifiers is limited to
-kinds. Consequently, visible dependent quantifiers are rejected in any context
-that is unambiguously the type of a term. They are also rejected in the types
-of data constructors.
-
-Kind-indexed GADTs
-------------------
-
-Consider the type ::
-
-  data G (a :: k) where
-    GInt    :: G Int
-    GMaybe  :: G Maybe
-
-This datatype ``G`` is GADT-like in both its kind and its type. Suppose you
-have ``g :: G a``, where ``a :: k``. Then pattern matching to discover that
-``g`` is in fact ``GMaybe`` tells you both that ``k ~ (Type -> Type)`` and
-``a ~ Maybe``. The definition for ``G`` requires that :extension:`PolyKinds`
-be in effect, but pattern-matching on ``G`` requires no extension beyond
-:extension:`GADTs`. That this works is actually a straightforward extension
-of regular GADTs and a consequence of the fact that kinds and types are the
-same.
-
-Note that the datatype ``G`` is used at different kinds in its body, and
-therefore that kind-indexed GADTs use a form of polymorphic recursion.
-It is thus only possible to use this feature if you have provided a
-complete user-supplied kind signature
-for the datatype (:ref:`complete-kind-signatures`).
-
-Higher-rank kinds
------------------
-
-In concert with :extension:`RankNTypes`, GHC supports higher-rank kinds.
-Here is an example::
-
-  -- Heterogeneous propositional equality
-  data (a :: k1) :~~: (b :: k2) where
-    HRefl :: a :~~: a
-
-  class HTestEquality (t :: forall k. k -> Type) where
-    hTestEquality :: forall k1 k2 (a :: k1) (b :: k2). t a -> t b -> Maybe (a :~~: b)
-
-Note that ``hTestEquality`` takes two arguments where the type variable ``t`` is applied
-to types of different kinds. That type variable must then be polykinded. Accordingly,
-the kind of ``HTestEquality`` (the class) is ``(forall k. k -> Type) -> Constraint``,
-a higher-rank kind.
-
-A big difference with higher-rank kinds as compared with higher-rank types is that
-``forall``\s in kinds *cannot* be moved. This is best illustrated by example.
-Suppose we want to have an instance of ``HTestEquality`` for ``(:~~:)``. ::
-
-  instance HTestEquality ((:~~:) a) where
-    hTestEquality HRefl HRefl = Just HRefl
-
-With the declaration of ``(:~~:)`` above, it gets kind ``forall k1 k2. k1 -> k2 -> Type``.
-Thus, the type ``(:~~:) a`` has kind ``k2 -> Type`` for some ``k2``. GHC cannot
-then *regeneralize* this kind to become ``forall k2. k2 -> Type`` as desired. Thus, the
-instance is rejected as ill-kinded.
-
-To allow for such an instance, we would have to define ``(:~~:)`` as follows::
-
-  data (:~~:) :: forall k1. k1 -> forall k2. k2 -> Type where
-    HRefl :: a :~~: a
-
-In this redefinition, we give an explicit kind for ``(:~~:)``, deferring the choice
-of ``k2`` until after the first argument (``a``) has been given. With this declaration
-for ``(:~~:)``, the instance for ``HTestEquality`` is accepted.
-
-Another difference between higher-rank kinds and types can be found in their
-treatment of inferred and user-specified type variables. Consider the following
-program: ::
-
-  newtype Foo (f :: forall k. k -> Type) = MkFoo (f Int)
-  data Proxy a = Proxy
-
-  foo :: Foo Proxy
-  foo = MkFoo Proxy
-
-The kind of ``Foo``'s parameter is ``forall k. k -> Type``, but the kind of
-``Proxy`` is ``forall {k}. k -> Type``, where ``{k}`` denotes that the kind
-variable ``k`` is to be inferred, not specified by the user. (See
-:ref:`visible-type-application` for more discussion on the inferred-specified
-distinction). GHC does not consider ``forall k. k -> Type`` and
-``forall {k}. k -> Type`` to be equal at the kind level, and thus rejects
-``Foo Proxy`` as ill-kinded.
-
-Constraints in kinds
---------------------
-
-As kinds and types are the same, kinds can (with :extension:`TypeInType`)
-contain type constraints. However, only equality constraints are supported.
-
-Here is an example of a constrained kind: ::
-
-  type family IsTypeLit a where
-    IsTypeLit Nat    = 'True
-    IsTypeLit Symbol = 'True
-    IsTypeLit a      = 'False
-
-  data T :: forall a. (IsTypeLit a ~ 'True) => a -> Type where
-    MkNat    :: T 42
-    MkSymbol :: T "Don't panic!"
-
-The declarations above are accepted. However, if we add ``MkOther :: T Int``,
-we get an error that the equality constraint is not satisfied; ``Int`` is
-not a type literal. Note that explicitly quantifying with ``forall a`` is
-necessary in order for ``T`` to typecheck
-(see :ref:`complete-kind-signatures`).
-
-The kind ``Type``
------------------
-
-.. extension:: StarIsType
-    :shortdesc: Treat ``*`` as ``Data.Kind.Type``.
-
-    :since: 8.6.1
-
-    Treat the unqualified uses of the ``*`` type operator as nullary and desugar
-    to ``Data.Kind.Type``.
-
-The kind ``Type`` (imported from ``Data.Kind``) classifies ordinary types. With
-:extension:`StarIsType` (currently enabled by default), ``*`` is desugared to
-``Type``, but using this legacy syntax is not recommended due to conflicts with
-:extension:`TypeOperators`. This also applies to ``★``, the Unicode variant of
-``*``.
-
-Inferring dependency in datatype declarations
----------------------------------------------
-
-If a type variable ``a`` in a datatype, class, or type family declaration
-depends on another such variable ``k`` in the same declaration, two properties
-must hold:
-
--  ``a`` must appear after ``k`` in the declaration, and
-
--  ``k`` must appear explicitly in the kind of *some* type variable in that
-   declaration.
-
-The first bullet simply means that the dependency must be well-scoped. The
-second bullet concerns GHC's ability to infer dependency. Inferring this
-dependency is difficult, and GHC currently requires the dependency to be
-made explicit, meaning that ``k`` must appear in the kind of a type variable,
-making it obvious to GHC that dependency is intended. For example: ::
-
-  data Proxy k (a :: k)            -- OK: dependency is "obvious"
-  data Proxy2 k a = P (Proxy k a)  -- ERROR: dependency is unclear
-
-In the second declaration, GHC cannot immediately tell that ``k`` should
-be a dependent variable, and so the declaration is rejected.
-
-It is conceivable that this restriction will be relaxed in the future,
-but it is (at the time of writing) unclear if the difficulties around this
-scenario are theoretical (inferring this dependency would mean our type
-system does not have principal types) or merely practical (inferring this
-dependency is hard, given GHC's implementation). So, GHC takes the easy
-way out and requires a little help from the user.
-
-Inferring dependency in user-written ``forall``\s
--------------------------------------------------
-
-A programmer may use ``forall`` in a type to introduce new quantified type
-variables. These variables may depend on each other, even in the same
-``forall``. However, GHC requires that the dependency be inferrable from
-the body of the ``forall``. Here are some examples::
-
-  data Proxy k (a :: k) = MkProxy   -- just to use below
-
-  f :: forall k a. Proxy k a        -- This is just fine. We see that (a :: k).
-  f = undefined
-
-  g :: Proxy k a -> ()              -- This is to use below.
-  g = undefined
-
-  data Sing a
-  h :: forall k a. Sing k -> Sing a -> ()  -- No obvious relationship between k and a
-  h _ _ = g (MkProxy :: Proxy k a)  -- This fails. We didn't know that a should have kind k.
-
-Note that in the last example, it's impossible to learn that ``a`` depends on ``k`` in the
-body of the ``forall`` (that is, the ``Sing k -> Sing a -> ()``). And so GHC rejects
-the program.
-
-Kind defaulting without :extension:`PolyKinds`
------------------------------------------------
-
-Without :extension:`PolyKinds`, GHC refuses to generalise over kind variables.
-It thus defaults kind variables to ``Type`` when possible; when this is not
-possible, an error is issued.
-
-Here is an example of this in action: ::
-
-  {-# LANGUAGE PolyKinds #-}
-  import Data.Kind (Type)
-  data Proxy a = P   -- inferred kind: Proxy :: k -> Type
-  data Compose f g x = MkCompose (f (g x))
-    -- inferred kind: Compose :: (b -> Type) -> (a -> b) -> a -> Type
-
-  -- separate module having imported the first
-  {-# LANGUAGE NoPolyKinds, DataKinds #-}
-  z = Proxy :: Proxy 'MkCompose
-
-In the last line, we use the promoted constructor ``'MkCompose``, which has
-kind ::
-
-  forall (a :: Type) (b :: Type) (f :: b -> Type) (g :: a -> b) (x :: a).
-    f (g x) -> Compose f g x
-
-Now we must infer a type for ``z``. To do so without generalising over kind
-variables, we must default the kind variables of ``'MkCompose``. We can easily
-default ``a`` and ``b`` to ``Type``, but ``f`` and ``g`` would be ill-kinded if
-defaulted. The definition for ``z`` is thus an error.
-
-Pretty-printing in the presence of kind polymorphism
-----------------------------------------------------
-
-With kind polymorphism, there is quite a bit going on behind the scenes that
-may be invisible to a Haskell programmer. GHC supports several flags that
-control how types are printed in error messages and at the GHCi prompt.
-See the :ref:`discussion of type pretty-printing options <pretty-printing-types>`
-for further details. If you are using kind polymorphism and are confused as to
-why GHC is rejecting (or accepting) your program, we encourage you to turn on
-these flags, especially :ghc-flag:`-fprint-explicit-kinds`.
-
-.. index::
-   single: TYPE
-   single: levity polymorphism
-
-.. _runtime-rep:
-
-Levity polymorphism
-===================
-
-In order to allow full flexibility in how kinds are used, it is necessary
-to use the kind system to differentiate between boxed, lifted types
-(normal, everyday types like ``Int`` and ``[Bool]``) and unboxed, primitive
-types (:ref:`primitives`) like ``Int#``. We thus have so-called levity
-polymorphism.
-
-Here are the key definitions, all available from ``GHC.Exts``: ::
-
-  TYPE :: RuntimeRep -> Type   -- highly magical, built into GHC
-
-  data RuntimeRep = LiftedRep     -- for things like `Int`
-                  | UnliftedRep   -- for things like `Array#`
-                  | IntRep        -- for `Int#`
-                  | TupleRep [RuntimeRep]  -- unboxed tuples, indexed by the representations of the elements
-                  | SumRep [RuntimeRep]    -- unboxed sums, indexed by the representations of the disjuncts
-                  | ...
-
-  type Type = TYPE LiftedRep    -- Type is just an ordinary type synonym
-
-The idea is that we have a new fundamental type constant ``TYPE``, which
-is parameterised by a ``RuntimeRep``. We thus get ``Int# :: TYPE 'IntRep``
-and ``Bool :: TYPE 'LiftedRep``. Anything with a type of the form
-``TYPE x`` can appear to either side of a function arrow ``->``. We can
-thus say that ``->`` has type
-``TYPE r1 -> TYPE r2 -> TYPE 'LiftedRep``. The result is always lifted
-because all functions are lifted in GHC.
-
-.. _levity-polymorphic-restrictions:
-
-No levity-polymorphic variables or arguments
---------------------------------------------
-
-If GHC didn't have to compile programs that run in the real world, that
-would be the end of the story. But representation polymorphism can cause
-quite a bit of trouble for GHC's code generator. Consider ::
-
-  bad :: forall (r1 :: RuntimeRep) (r2 :: RuntimeRep)
-                (a :: TYPE r1) (b :: TYPE r2).
-         (a -> b) -> a -> b
-  bad f x = f x
-
-This seems like a generalisation of the standard ``$`` operator. If we
-think about compiling this to runnable code, though, problems appear.
-In particular, when we call ``bad``, we must somehow pass ``x`` into
-``bad``. How wide (that is, how many bits) is ``x``? Is it a pointer?
-What kind of register (floating-point or integral) should ``x`` go in?
-It's all impossible to say, because ``x``'s type, ``a :: TYPE r1`` is
-levity polymorphic. We thus forbid such constructions, via the
-following straightforward rule:
-
-    No variable may have a levity-polymorphic type.
-
-This eliminates ``bad`` because the variable ``x`` would have a
-representation-polymorphic type.
-
-However, not all is lost. We can still do this: ::
-
-  ($) :: forall r (a :: Type) (b :: TYPE r).
-         (a -> b) -> a -> b
-  f $ x = f x
-
-Here, only ``b`` is levity polymorphic. There are no variables
-with a levity-polymorphic type. And the code generator has no
-trouble with this. Indeed, this is the true type of GHC's ``$`` operator,
-slightly more general than the Haskell 98 version.
-
-Because the code generator must store and move arguments as well
-as variables, the logic above applies equally well to function arguments,
-which may not be levity-polymorphic.
-
-
-Levity-polymorphic bottoms
---------------------------
-
-We can use levity polymorphism to good effect with ``error``
-and ``undefined``, whose types are given here: ::
-
-  undefined :: forall (r :: RuntimeRep) (a :: TYPE r).
-               HasCallStack => a
-  error :: forall (r :: RuntimeRep) (a :: TYPE r).
-           HasCallStack => String -> a
-
-These functions do not bind a levity-polymorphic variable, and
-so are accepted. Their polymorphism allows users to use these to conveniently
-stub out functions that return unboxed types.
-
-Printing levity-polymorphic types
----------------------------------
-
-.. ghc-flag:: -fprint-explicit-runtime-reps
-    :shortdesc: Print ``RuntimeRep`` variables in types which are
-        runtime-representation polymorphic.
-    :type: dynamic
-    :reverse: -fno-print-explicit-runtime-reps
-    :category: verbosity
-
-    Print ``RuntimeRep`` parameters as they appear; otherwise, they are
-    defaulted to ``'LiftedRep``.
-
-Most GHC users will not need to worry about levity polymorphism
-or unboxed types. For these users, seeing the levity polymorphism
-in the type of ``$`` is unhelpful. And thus, by default, it is suppressed,
-by supposing all type variables of type ``RuntimeRep`` to be ``'LiftedRep``
-when printing, and printing ``TYPE 'LiftedRep`` as ``Type`` (or ``*`` when
-:extension:`StarIsType` is on).
-
-Should you wish to see levity polymorphism in your types, enable
-the flag :ghc-flag:`-fprint-explicit-runtime-reps`. For example,
-
-    .. code-block:: none
-
-        ghci> :t ($)
-        ($) :: (a -> b) -> a -> b
-        ghci> :set -fprint-explicit-runtime-reps
-        ghci> :t ($)
-        ($)
-          :: forall (r :: GHC.Types.RuntimeRep) a (b :: TYPE r).
-             (a -> b) -> a -> b
-
-.. _type-level-literals:
-
-Type-Level Literals
-===================
-
-GHC supports numeric and string literals at the type level, giving
-convenient access to a large number of predefined type-level constants.
-Numeric literals are of kind ``Nat``, while string literals are of kind
-``Symbol``. This feature is enabled by the :extension:`DataKinds` language
-extension.
-
-The kinds of the literals and all other low-level operations for this
-feature are defined in module ``GHC.TypeLits``. Note that the module
-defines some type-level operators that clash with their value-level
-counterparts (e.g. ``(+)``). Import and export declarations referring to
-these operators require an explicit namespace annotation (see
-:ref:`explicit-namespaces`).
-
-Here is an example of using type-level numeric literals to provide a
-safe interface to a low-level function: ::
-
-    import GHC.TypeLits
-    import Data.Word
-    import Foreign
-
-    newtype ArrPtr (n :: Nat) a = ArrPtr (Ptr a)
-
-    clearPage :: ArrPtr 4096 Word8 -> IO ()
-    clearPage (ArrPtr p) = ...
-
-Here is an example of using type-level string literals to simulate
-simple record operations: ::
-
-    data Label (l :: Symbol) = Get
-
-    class Has a l b | a l -> b where
-      from :: a -> Label l -> b
-
-    data Point = Point Int Int deriving Show
-
-    instance Has Point "x" Int where from (Point x _) _ = x
-    instance Has Point "y" Int where from (Point _ y) _ = y
-
-    example = from (Point 1 2) (Get :: Label "x")
-
-
-.. _typelit-runtime:
-
-Runtime Values for Type-Level Literals
---------------------------------------
-
-Sometimes it is useful to access the value-level literal associated with
-a type-level literal. This is done with the functions ``natVal`` and
-``symbolVal``. For example: ::
-
-    GHC.TypeLits> natVal (Proxy :: Proxy 2)
-    2
-
-These functions are overloaded because they need to return a different
-result, depending on the type at which they are instantiated. ::
-
-    natVal :: KnownNat n => proxy n -> Integer
-
-    -- instance KnownNat 0
-    -- instance KnownNat 1
-    -- instance KnownNat 2
-    -- ...
-
-GHC discharges the constraint as soon as it knows what concrete
-type-level literal is being used in the program. Note that this works
-only for *literals* and not arbitrary type expressions. For example, a
-constraint of the form ``KnownNat (a + b)`` will *not* be simplified to
-``(KnownNat a, KnownNat b)``; instead, GHC will keep the constraint as
-is, until it can simplify ``a + b`` to a constant value.
-
-It is also possible to convert a run-time integer or string value to the
-corresponding type-level literal. Of course, the resulting type literal
-will be unknown at compile-time, so it is hidden in an existential type.
-The conversion may be performed using ``someNatVal`` for integers and
-``someSymbolVal`` for strings: ::
-
-    someNatVal :: Integer -> Maybe SomeNat
-    SomeNat    :: KnownNat n => Proxy n -> SomeNat
-
-The operations on strings are similar.
-
-.. _typelit-tyfuns:
-
-Computing With Type-Level Naturals
-----------------------------------
-
-GHC 7.8 can evaluate arithmetic expressions involving type-level natural
-numbers. Such expressions may be constructed using the type-families
-``(+), (*), (^)`` for addition, multiplication, and exponentiation.
-Numbers may be compared using ``(<=?)``, which returns a promoted
-boolean value, or ``(<=)``, which compares numbers as a constraint. For
-example:
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-    GHC.TypeLits> natVal (Proxy :: Proxy (2 + 3))
-    5
-
-At present, GHC is quite limited in its reasoning about arithmetic: it
-will only evaluate the arithmetic type functions and compare the
-results--- in the same way that it does for any other type function. In
-particular, it does not know more general facts about arithmetic, such
-as the commutativity and associativity of ``(+)``, for example.
-
-However, it is possible to perform a bit of "backwards" evaluation. For
-example, here is how we could get GHC to compute arbitrary logarithms at
-the type level:
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-    lg :: Proxy base -> Proxy (base ^ pow) -> Proxy pow
-    lg _ _ = Proxy
-
-    GHC.TypeLits> natVal (lg (Proxy :: Proxy 2) (Proxy :: Proxy 8))
-    3
-
-Equality constraints, Coercible, and the kind Constraint
-========================================================
-
-.. _equality-constraints:
-
-Equality constraints
---------------------
-
-A type context can include equality constraints of the form ``t1 ~ t2``,
-which denote that the types ``t1`` and ``t2`` need to be the same. In
-the presence of type families, whether two types are equal cannot
-generally be decided locally. Hence, the contexts of function signatures
-may include equality constraints, as in the following example: ::
-
-    sumCollects :: (Collects c1, Collects c2, Elem c1 ~ Elem c2) => c1 -> c2 -> c2
-
-where we require that the element type of ``c1`` and ``c2`` are the
-same. In general, the types ``t1`` and ``t2`` of an equality constraint
-may be arbitrary monotypes; i.e., they may not contain any quantifiers,
-independent of whether higher-rank types are otherwise enabled.
-
-Equality constraints can also appear in class and instance contexts. The
-former enable a simple translation of programs using functional
-dependencies into programs using family synonyms instead. The general
-idea is to rewrite a class declaration of the form ::
-
-    class C a b | a -> b
-
-to ::
-
-    class (F a ~ b) => C a b where
-      type F a
-
-That is, we represent every functional dependency (FD) ``a1 .. an -> b``
-by an FD type family ``F a1 .. an`` and a superclass context equality
-``F a1 .. an ~ b``, essentially giving a name to the functional
-dependency. In class instances, we define the type instances of FD
-families in accordance with the class head. Method signatures are not
-affected by that process.
-
-.. index::
-   pair: Type equality constraints; kind heterogeneous
-
-Heterogeneous equality
-----------------------
-
-GHC also supports *kind-heterogeneous* equality, which relates two types of
-potentially different kinds. Heterogeneous equality is spelled ``~~``. Here
-are the kinds of ``~`` and ``~~`` to better understand their difference: ::
-
-  (~)  :: forall k. k -> k -> Constraint
-  (~~) :: forall k1 k2. k1 -> k2 -> Constraint
-
-Users will most likely want ``~``, but ``~~`` is available if GHC cannot know,
-a priori, that the two types of interest have the same kind. Evidence that
-``(a :: k1) ~~ (b :: k2)`` tells GHC both that ``k1`` and ``k2`` are the same
-and that ``a`` and ``b`` are the same.
-
-Because ``~`` is the more common equality relation, GHC prints out ``~~`` like
-``~`` unless :ghc-flag:`-fprint-equality-relations` is set.
-
-Unlifted heterogeneous equality
--------------------------------
-
-Internal to GHC is yet a third equality relation ``(~#)``. It is heterogeneous
-(like ``~~``) and is used only internally. It may appear in error messages
-and other output only when :ghc-flag:`-fprint-equality-relations` is enabled.
-
-.. _coercible:
-
-The ``Coercible`` constraint
-----------------------------
-
-The constraint ``Coercible t1 t2`` is similar to ``t1 ~ t2``, but
-denotes representational equality between ``t1`` and ``t2`` in the sense
-of Roles (:ref:`roles`). It is exported by :base-ref:`Data.Coerce.`, which also
-contains the documentation. More details and discussion can be found in the
-paper
-`"Safe Coercions" <https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/uploads/prod/2018/05/coercible-JFP.pdf>`__.
-
-.. _constraint-kind:
-
-The ``Constraint`` kind
------------------------
-
-.. extension:: ConstraintKinds
-    :shortdesc: Enable a kind of constraints.
-
-    :since: 7.4.1
-
-    Allow types of kind ``Constraint`` to be used in contexts.
-
-Normally, *constraints* (which appear in types to the left of the ``=>``
-arrow) have a very restricted syntax. They can only be:
-
--  Class constraints, e.g. ``Show a``
-
--  :ghc-flag:`Implicit parameter <-XImplicitParams>` constraints, e.g.
-   ``?x::Int`` (with the :extension:`ImplicitParams` extension)
-
--  :ref:`Equality constraints <equality-constraints>`, e.g. ``a ~ Int``
-   (with the :extension:`TypeFamilies` or :extension:`GADTs` extensions)
-
-With the :extension:`ConstraintKinds` extension, GHC becomes more liberal in what it
-accepts as constraints in your program. To be precise, with this flag
-any *type* of the new kind ``Constraint`` can be used as a constraint.
-The following things have kind ``Constraint``:
-
--  Anything which is already valid as a constraint without the flag:
-   saturated applications to type classes, implicit parameter and
-   equality constraints.
-
-- Tuples, all of whose component types have kind ``Constraint``. So for example
-  the type ``(Show a, Ord a)`` is of kind ``Constraint``.
-
--  Anything whose form is not yet known, but the user has declared to
-   have kind ``Constraint`` (for which they need to import it from
-   ``Data.Kind``). So for example
-   ``type Foo (f :: Type -> Constraint) = forall b. f b => b -> b``
-   is allowed, as well as examples involving type families: ::
-
-       type family Typ a b :: Constraint
-       type instance Typ Int  b = Show b
-       type instance Typ Bool b = Num b
-
-       func :: Typ a b => a -> b -> b
-       func = ...
-
-Note that because constraints are just handled as types of a particular
-kind, this extension allows type constraint synonyms: ::
-
-    type Stringy a = (Read a, Show a)
-    foo :: Stringy a => a -> (String, String -> a)
-    foo x = (show x, read)
-
-Presently, only standard constraints, tuples and type synonyms for those
-two sorts of constraint are permitted in instance contexts and
-superclasses (without extra flags). The reason is that permitting more
-general constraints can cause type checking to loop, as it would with
-these two programs:
-
-::
-
-    type family Clsish u a
-    type instance Clsish () a = Cls a
-    class Clsish () a => Cls a where
-
-::
-
-    class OkCls a where
-
-    type family OkClsish u a
-    type instance OkClsish () a = OkCls a
-    instance OkClsish () a => OkCls a where
-
-You may write programs that use exotic sorts of constraints in instance
-contexts and superclasses, but to do so you must use
-:extension:`UndecidableInstances` to signal that you don't mind if the type
-checker fails to terminate.
-
-.. _quantified-constraints:
-
-Quantified constraints
-======================
-
-.. extension:: QuantifiedConstraints
-    :shortdesc: Allow ``forall`` quantifiers in constraints.
-
-    :since: 8.6.1
-
-    Allow constraints to quantify over types.
-
-The extension :extension:`QuantifiedConstraints` introduces **quantified constraints**,
-which give a new level of expressiveness in constraints. For example, consider ::
-
- data Rose f a = Branch a (f (Rose f a))
-
- instance (Eq a, ???) => Eq (Rose f a)
-   where
-     (Branch x1 c1) == (Branch x2 c2)
-        = x1==x1 && c1==c2
-
-From the ``x1==x2`` we need ``Eq a``, which is fine.  From ``c1==c2`` we need ``Eq (f (Rose f a))`` which
-is *not* fine in Haskell today; we have no way to solve such a constraint.
-
-:extension:`QuantifiedConstraints` lets us write this ::
-
- instance (Eq a, forall b. (Eq b) => Eq (f b))
-        => Eq (Rose f a)
-   where
-     (Branch x1 c1) == (Branch x2 c2)
-        = x1==x1 && c1==c2
-
-Here, the quantified constraint ``forall b. (Eq b) => Eq (f b)`` behaves
-a bit like a local instance declaration, and makes the instance typeable.
-
-The paper `Quantified class constraints
-<https://homepages.inf.ed.ac.uk/wadler/papers/quantcc/quantcc.pdf>`_ (by Bottu, Karachalias,
-Schrijvers, Oliveira, Wadler, Haskell Symposium 2017) describes this feature in
-technical detail, with examples, and so is a primary reference source for this
-feature.
-
-Motivation
-----------------
-Introducing quantified constraints offers two main benefits:
-
-- Firstly, they enable terminating resolution where this was not possible before.  Consider for instance the following instance declaration for the general rose datatype ::
-
-   data Rose f x = Rose x (f (Rose f x))
-
-   instance (Eq a, forall b. Eq b => Eq (f b)) => Eq (Rose f a) where
-     (Rose x1 rs1) == (Rose x2 rs2) = x1 == x2 && rs1 == rs2
-
-  This extension allows us to write constraints of the form ``forall b. Eq b =>
-  Eq (f b)``, which is needed to solve the ``Eq (f (Rose f x))`` constraint
-  arising from the second usage of the ``(==)`` method.
-
-- Secondly, quantified constraints allow for more concise and precise specifications. As an example, consider the MTL type class for monad transformers::
-
-   class Trans t where
-     lift :: Monad m => m a -> (t m) a
-
-  The developer knows that a monad transformer takes a monad ``m`` into a new monad ``t m``.
-  But this property is not formally specified in the above declaration.
-  This omission becomes an issue when defining monad transformer composition::
-
-    newtype (t1 * t2) m a = C { runC :: t1 (t2 m) a }
-
-    instance (Trans t1, Trans t2) => Trans (t1 * t2) where
-      lift = C . lift . lift
-
-  The goal here is to ``lift`` from monad ``m`` to ``t2 m`` and
-  then ``lift`` this again into ``t1 (t2 m)``.
-  However, this second ``lift`` can only be accepted when ``(t2 m)`` is a monad
-  and there is no way of establishing that this fact universally holds.
-
-  Quantified constraints enable this property to be made explicit in the ``Trans``
-  class declaration::
-
-    class (forall m. Monad m => Monad (t m)) => Trans t where
-      lift :: Monad m => m a -> (t m) a
-
-This idea is very old; see Section 7 of `Derivable type classes <https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/publication/derivable-type-classes/>`_.
-
-Syntax changes
-----------------
-
-`Haskell 2010 <https://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/haskell2010/haskellch10.html#x17-18000010.5>`_ defines a ``context`` (the bit to the left of ``=>`` in a type) like this
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-    context ::= class
-            |   ( class1, ..., classn )
-
-    class ::= qtycls tyvar
-            |  qtycls (tyvar atype1 ... atypen)
-
-We to extend ``class`` (warning: this is a rather confusingly named non-terminal symbol) with two extra forms, namely precisely what can appear in an instance declaration
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-    class ::= ...
-          | [context =>] qtycls inst
-          | [context =>] tyvar inst
-
-The definition of ``inst`` is unchanged from the Haskell Report (roughly, just a type).
-The ``context =>`` part is optional.  That is the only syntactic change to the language.
-
-Notes:
-
-- Where GHC allows extensions instance declarations we allow exactly the same extensions to this new form of ``class``.  Specifically, with :extension:`ExplicitForAll` and :extension:`MultiParamTypeClasses` the syntax becomes
-
-  .. code-block:: none
-
-    class ::= ...
-           | [forall tyavrs .] [context =>] qtycls inst1 ... instn
-           | [forall tyavrs .] [context =>] tyvar inst1 ... instn
-
-  Note that an explicit ``forall`` is often absolutely essential. Consider the rose-tree example ::
-
-    instance (Eq a, forall b. Eq b => Eq (f b)) => Eq (Rose f a) where ...
-
-  Without the ``forall b``, the type variable ``b`` would be quantified over the whole instance declaration, which is not what is intended.
-
-- One of these new quantified constraints can appear anywhere that any other constraint can, not just in instance declarations.  Notably, it can appear in a type signature for a value binding, data constructor, or expression.  For example ::
-
-   f :: (Eq a, forall b. Eq b => Eq (f b)) => Rose f a -> Rose f a -> Bool
-   f t1 t2 = not (t1 == t2)
-
-- The form with a type variable at the head allows this::
-
-   instance (forall xx. c (Free c xx)) => Monad (Free c) where
-       Free f >>= g = f g
-
-  See `Iceland Jack's summary <https://gitlab.haskell.org/ghc/ghc/issues/14733#note_148352>`_.  The key point is that the bit to the right of the ``=>`` may be headed by a type *variable* (``c`` in this case), rather than a class.  It should not be one of the forall'd variables, though.
-
-  (NB: this goes beyond what is described in `the paper <http://i.cs.hku.hk/~bruno//papers/hs2017.pdf>`_, but does not seem to introduce any new technical difficulties.)
-
-
-Typing changes
-----------------
-
-See `the paper <http://i.cs.hku.hk/~bruno//papers/hs2017.pdf>`_.
-
-Superclasses
-----------------
-
-Suppose we have::
-
-     f :: forall m. (forall a. Ord a => Ord (m a)) => m Int -> Bool
-     f x = x == x
-
-From the ``x==x`` we need an ``Eq (m Int)`` constraint, but the context only gives us a way to figure out ``Ord (m a)`` constraints.  But from the given constraint ``forall a. Ord a => Ord (m a)`` we derive a second given constraint ``forall a. Ord a => Eq (m a)``, and from that we can readily solve ``Eq (m Int)``.  This process is very similar to the way that superclasses already work: given an ``Ord a`` constraint we derive a second given ``Eq a`` constraint.
-
-NB: This treatment of superclasses goes beyond `the paper <http://i.cs.hku.hk/~bruno//papers/hs2017.pdf>`_, but is specifically desired by users.
-
-Overlap
--------------
-
-Quantified constraints can potentially lead to overlapping local axioms.
-Consider for instance the following example::
-
- class A a where {}
- class B a where {}
- class C a where {}
- class (A a => C a) => D a where {}
- class (B a => C a) => E a where {}
-
- class C a => F a where {}
- instance (B a, D a, E a) => F a where {}
-
-When type checking the instance declaration for ``F a``,
-we need to check that the superclass ``C`` of ``F`` holds.
-We thus try to entail the constraint ``C a`` under the theory containing:
-
-- The instance axioms : ``(B a, D a, E a) => F a``
-- The local axioms from the instance context : ``B a``, ``D a`` and ``E a``
-- The closure of the superclass relation over these local axioms : ``A a => C a`` and ``B a => C a``
-
-However, the ``A a => C a`` and ``B a => C a`` axioms both match the wanted constraint ``C a``.
-There are several possible approaches for handling these overlapping local axioms:
-
-- **Pick first**.  We can simply select the **first matching axiom** we encounter.
-  In the above example, this would be ``A a => C a``.
-  We'd then need to entail ``A a``, for which we have no matching axioms available, causing the above program to be rejected.
-
-  But suppose we made a slight adjustment to the order of the instance context, putting ``E a`` before ``D a``::
-
-   instance (B a, E a, D a) => F a where {}
-
-  The first matching axiom we encounter while entailing ``C a``, is ``B a => C a``.
-  We have a local axiom ``B a`` available, so now the program is suddenly accepted.
-  This behaviour, where the ordering of an instance context determines
-  whether or not the program is accepted, seems rather confusing for the developer.
-
-- **Reject if in doubt**.  An alternative approach would be to check for overlapping axioms,
-  when solving a constraint.
-  When multiple matching axioms are discovered, we **reject the program**.
-  This approach is a bit conservative, in that it may reject working programs.
-  But it seem much more transparent towards the developer, who
-  can be presented with a clear message, explaining why the program is rejected.
-
-- **Backtracking**.  Lastly, a simple form of **backtracking** could be introduced.
-  We simply select the first matching axiom we encounter and when the entailment fails,
-  we backtrack and look for other axioms that might match the wanted constraint.
-
-  This seems the most intuitive and transparent approach towards the developer,
-  who no longer needs to concern himself with the fact that his code might contain
-  overlapping axioms or with the ordering of his instance contexts.  But backtracking
-  would apply equally to ordinary instance selection (in the presence of overlapping
-  instances), so it is a much more pervasive change, with substantial consequences
-  for the type inference engine.
-
-GHC adopts **Reject if in doubt** for now.  We can see how painful it
-is in practice, and try something more ambitious if necessary.
-
-Instance lookup
--------------------
-
-In the light of the overlap decision, instance lookup works like this when
-trying to solve a class constraint ``C t``
-
-1. First see if there is a given un-quantified constraint ``C t``.  If so, use it to solve the constraint.
-
-2. If not, look at all the available given quantified constraints; if exactly one one matches ``C t``, choose it; if more than one matches, report an error.
-
-3. If no quantified constraints match, look up in the global instances, as described in :ref:`instance-resolution` and :ref:`instance-overlap`.
-
-Termination
----------------
-
-GHC uses the :ref:`Paterson Conditions <instance-termination>` to ensure
-that instance resolution terminates. How are those rules modified for quantified
-constraints? In two ways.
-
-- Each quantified constraint, taken by itself, must satisfy the termination rules for an instance declaration.
-
-- After "for each class constraint ``(C t1 ... tn)``", add "or each quantified constraint ``(forall as. context => C t1 .. tn)``"
-
-Note that the second item only at the *head* of the quantified constraint, not its context.  Reason: the head is the new goal that has to be solved if we use the instance declaration.
-
-Of course, ``UndecidableInstances`` lifts the Paterson Conditions, as now.
-
-Coherence
------------
-
-Although quantified constraints are a little like local instance declarations, they differ
-in one big way: the local instances are written by the compiler, not the user, and hence
-cannot introduce incoherence.  Consider ::
-
-  f :: (forall a. Eq a => Eq (f a)) => f b -> f Bool
-  f x = ...rhs...
-
-In ``...rhs...`` there is, in effect a local instance for ``Eq (f a)`` for any ``a``.  But
-at a call site for ``f`` the compiler itself produces evidence to pass to ``f``. For example,
-if we called ``f Nothing``, then ``f`` is ``Maybe`` and the compiler must prove (at the
-call site) that ``forall a. Eq a => Eq (Maybe a)`` holds.  It can do this easily, by
-appealing to the existing instance declaration for ``Eq (Maybe a)``.
-
-In short, quantified constraints do not introduce incoherence.
-
-
-.. _extensions-to-type-signatures:
-
-Extensions to type signatures
-=============================
-
-.. _explicit-foralls:
-
-Explicit universal quantification (forall)
-------------------------------------------
-
-.. extension:: ExplicitForAll
-    :shortdesc: Enable explicit universal quantification.
-        Implied by :extension:`ScopedTypeVariables`, :extension:`LiberalTypeSynonyms`,
-        :extension:`RankNTypes` and :extension:`ExistentialQuantification`.
-
-    :since: 6.12.1
-
-    Allow use of the ``forall`` keyword in places where universal quantification
-    is implicit.
-
-Haskell type signatures are implicitly quantified. When the language
-option :extension:`ExplicitForAll` is used, the keyword ``forall`` allows us to
-say exactly what this means. For example: ::
-
-    g :: b -> b
-
-means this: ::
-
-    g :: forall b. (b -> b)
-
-The two are treated identically, except that the latter may bring type variables
-into scope (see :ref:`scoped-type-variables`).
-
-This extension also enables explicit quantification of type and kind variables
-in :ref:`data-instance-declarations`, :ref:`type-instance-declarations`,
-:ref:`closed-type-families`, :ref:`assoc-inst`, and :ref:`rewrite-rules`.
-
-Notes:
-
-- As well in type signatures, you can also use an explicit ``forall``
-  in an instance declaration: ::
-
-      instance forall a. Eq a => Eq [a] where ...
-
-- If the :ghc-flag:`-Wunused-foralls` flag is enabled, a warning will be emitted
-  when you write a type variable in an explicit ``forall`` statement that is
-  otherwise unused. For instance: ::
-
-    g :: forall a b. (b -> b)
-
-  would warn about the unused type variable `a`.
-
-.. _flexible-contexts:
-
-The context of a type signature
--------------------------------
-
-The :extension:`FlexibleContexts` extension lifts the Haskell 98 restriction that
-the type-class constraints in a type signature must have the form *(class
-type-variable)* or *(class (type-variable type1 type2 ... typen))*. With
-:extension:`FlexibleContexts` these type signatures are perfectly okay
-::
-
-      g :: Eq [a] => ...
-      g :: Ord (T a ()) => ...
-
-The flag :extension:`FlexibleContexts` also lifts the corresponding restriction
-on class declarations (:ref:`superclass-rules`) and instance
-declarations (:ref:`instance-rules`).
-
-.. _ambiguity:
-
-Ambiguous types and the ambiguity check
----------------------------------------
-
-.. extension:: AllowAmbiguousTypes
-    :shortdesc: Allow the user to write ambiguous types, and
-        the type inference engine to infer them.
-
-    :since: 7.8.1
-
-    Allow type signatures which appear that they would result in
-    an unusable binding.
-
-Each user-written type signature is subjected to an *ambiguity check*.
-The ambiguity check rejects functions that can never be called; for
-example: ::
-
-       f :: C a => Int
-
-The idea is there can be no legal calls to ``f`` because every call will
-give rise to an ambiguous constraint. Indeed, the *only* purpose of the
-ambiguity check is to report functions that cannot possibly be called.
-We could soundly omit the ambiguity check on type signatures entirely,
-at the expense of delaying ambiguity errors to call sites. Indeed, the
-language extension :extension:`AllowAmbiguousTypes` switches off the ambiguity
-check.
-
-Ambiguity can be subtle. Consider this example which uses functional
-dependencies: ::
-
-       class D a b | a -> b where ..
-       h :: D Int b => Int
-
-The ``Int`` may well fix ``b`` at the call site, so that signature
-should not be rejected. Moreover, the dependencies might be hidden.
-Consider ::
-
-       class X a b where ...
-       class D a b | a -> b where ...
-       instance D a b => X [a] b where...
-       h :: X a b => a -> a
-
-Here ``h``\'s type looks ambiguous in ``b``, but here's a legal call: ::
-
-       ...(h [True])...
-
-That gives rise to a ``(X [Bool] beta)`` constraint, and using the
-instance means we need ``(D Bool beta)`` and that fixes ``beta`` via
-``D``\'s fundep!
-
-Behind all these special cases there is a simple guiding principle.
-Consider ::
-
-      f :: type
-      f = ...blah...
-
-      g :: type
-      g = f
-
-You would think that the definition of ``g`` would surely typecheck!
-After all ``f`` has exactly the same type, and ``g=f``. But in fact
-``f``\'s type is instantiated and the instantiated constraints are solved
-against the constraints bound by ``g``\ 's signature. So, in the case an
-ambiguous type, solving will fail. For example, consider the earlier
-definition ``f :: C a => Int``: ::
-
-      f :: C a => Int
-      f = ...blah...
-
-      g :: C a => Int
-      g = f
-
-In ``g``\'s definition, we'll instantiate to ``(C alpha)`` and try to
-deduce ``(C alpha)`` from ``(C a)``, and fail.
-
-So in fact we use this as our *definition* of ambiguity: a type ``ty``
-is ambiguous if and only if ``((undefined :: ty) :: ty)`` would fail to
-typecheck. We use a very similar test for *inferred* types, to ensure
-that they too are unambiguous.
-
-*Switching off the ambiguity check.* Even if a function has an
-ambiguous type according the "guiding principle", it is possible that
-the function is callable. For example: ::
-
-      class D a b where ...
-      instance D Bool b where ...
-
-      strange :: D a b => a -> a
-      strange = ...blah...
-
-      foo = strange True
-
-Here ``strange``\'s type is ambiguous, but the call in ``foo`` is OK
-because it gives rise to a constraint ``(D Bool beta)``, which is
-soluble by the ``(D Bool b)`` instance.
-
-Another way of getting rid of the ambiguity at the call site is to use
-the :extension:`TypeApplications` extension to specify the types. For example: ::
-
-      class D a b where
-        h :: b
-      instance D Int Int where ...
-
-      main = print (h @Int @Int)
-
-Here ``a`` is ambiguous in the definition of ``D`` but later specified
-to be `Int` using type applications.
-
-:extension:`AllowAmbiguousTypes` allows you to switch off the ambiguity check.
-However, even with ambiguity checking switched off, GHC will complain about a
-function that can *never* be called, such as this one: ::
-
-      f :: (Int ~ Bool) => a -> a
-
-Sometimes :extension:`AllowAmbiguousTypes` does not mix well with :extension:`RankNTypes`.
-For example: ::
-
-      foo :: forall r. (forall i. (KnownNat i) => r) -> r
-      foo f = f @1
-
-      boo :: forall j. (KnownNat j) => Int
-      boo = ....
-
-      h :: Int
-      h = foo boo
-
-This program will be rejected as ambiguous because GHC will not unify
-the type variables `j` and `i`.
-
-Unlike the previous examples, it is not currently possible
-to resolve the ambiguity manually by using :extension:`TypeApplications`.
-
-
-.. note::
-    *A historical note.* GHC used to impose some more restrictive and less
-    principled conditions on type signatures. For type
-    ``forall tv1..tvn (c1, ...,cn) => type`` GHC used to require
-
-     a. that each universally quantified type variable ``tvi`` must be "reachable"
-        from ``type``, and
-
-     b. that every constraint ``ci`` mentions at least one of the universally
-        quantified type variables ``tvi``. These ad-hoc restrictions are
-        completely subsumed by the new ambiguity check.
-
-.. _kinding:
-
-Explicitly-kinded quantification
---------------------------------
-
-.. extension:: KindSignatures
-    :shortdesc: Enable kind signatures.
-        Implied by :extension:`TypeFamilies` and :extension:`PolyKinds`.
-
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Allow explicit kind signatures on type variables.
-
-Haskell infers the kind of each type variable. Sometimes it is nice to
-be able to give the kind explicitly as (machine-checked) documentation,
-just as it is nice to give a type signature for a function. On some
-occasions, it is essential to do so. For example, in his paper
-"Restricted Data Types in Haskell" (Haskell Workshop 1999) John Hughes
-had to define the data type: ::
-
-    data Set cxt a = Set [a]
-                   | Unused (cxt a -> ())
-
-The only use for the ``Unused`` constructor was to force the correct
-kind for the type variable ``cxt``.
-
-GHC now instead allows you to specify the kind of a type variable
-directly, wherever a type variable is explicitly bound, with the extension
-:extension:`KindSignatures`.
-
-This extension enables kind signatures in the following places:
-
--  ``data`` declarations: ::
-
-         data Set (cxt :: Type -> Type) a = Set [a]
-
--  ``type`` declarations: ::
-
-         type T (f :: Type -> Type) = f Int
-
--  ``class`` declarations: ::
-
-         class (Eq a) => C (f :: Type -> Type) a where ...
-
--  ``forall``\'s in type signatures: ::
-
-         f :: forall (cxt :: Type -> Type). Set cxt Int
-
-The parentheses are required.
-
-As part of the same extension, you can put kind annotations in types as
-well. Thus: ::
-
-       f :: (Int :: Type) -> Int
-       g :: forall a. a -> (a :: Type)
-
-The syntax is
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-       atype ::= '(' ctype '::' kind ')
-
-The parentheses are required.
-
-.. _universal-quantification:
-
-.. _scoped-type-variables:
-
-Lexically scoped type variables
-===============================
-
-.. extension:: ScopedTypeVariables
-    :shortdesc: Enable lexically-scoped type variables.
-
-    :implies: :extension:`ExplicitForAll`
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Enable lexical scoping of type variables explicitly introduced with
-    ``forall``.
-
-.. tip::
-
-    ``ScopedTypeVariables`` breaks GHC's usual rule that explicit ``forall`` is optional and doesn't affect semantics.
-    For the :ref:`decl-type-sigs` (or :ref:`exp-type-sigs`) examples in this section,
-    the explicit ``forall`` is required.
-    (If omitted, usually the program will not compile; in a few cases it will compile but the functions get a different signature.)
-    To trigger those forms of ``ScopedTypeVariables``, the ``forall`` must appear against the top-level signature (or outer expression)
-    but *not* against nested signatures referring to the same type variables.
-
-    Explicit ``forall`` is not always required -- see :ref:`pattern signature equivalent <pattern-equiv-form>` for the example in this section, or :ref:`pattern-type-sigs`.
-
-GHC supports *lexically scoped type variables*, without which some type
-signatures are simply impossible to write. For example: ::
-
-    f :: forall a. [a] -> [a]
-    f xs = ys ++ ys
-         where
-           ys :: [a]
-           ys = reverse xs
-
-The type signature for ``f`` brings the type variable ``a`` into scope,
-because of the explicit ``forall`` (:ref:`decl-type-sigs`). The type
-variables bound by a ``forall`` scope over the entire definition of the
-accompanying value declaration. In this example, the type variable ``a``
-scopes over the whole definition of ``f``, including over the type
-signature for ``ys``. In Haskell 98 it is not possible to declare a type
-for ``ys``; a major benefit of scoped type variables is that it becomes
-possible to do so.
-
-.. _pattern-equiv-form:
-
-An equivalent form for that example, avoiding explicit ``forall`` uses :ref:`pattern-type-sigs`: ::
-
-    f :: [a] -> [a]
-    f (xs :: [aa]) = xs ++ ys
-      where
-        ys :: [aa]
-        ys = reverse xs
-
-Unlike the ``forall`` form, type variable ``a`` from ``f``'s signature is not scoped over ``f``'s equation(s).
-Type variable ``aa`` bound by the pattern signature is scoped over the right-hand side of ``f``'s equation.
-(Therefore there is no need to use a distinct type variable; using ``a`` would be equivalent.)
-
-
-Overview
---------
-
-The design follows the following principles
-
--  A scoped type variable stands for a type *variable*, and not for a
-   *type*. (This is a change from GHC's earlier design.)
-
--  Furthermore, distinct lexical type variables stand for distinct type
-   variables. This means that every programmer-written type signature
-   (including one that contains free scoped type variables) denotes a
-   *rigid* type; that is, the type is fully known to the type checker,
-   and no inference is involved.
-
--  Lexical type variables may be alpha-renamed freely, without changing
-   the program.
-
-A *lexically scoped type variable* can be bound by:
-
--  A declaration type signature (:ref:`decl-type-sigs`)
-
--  An expression type signature (:ref:`exp-type-sigs`)
-
--  A pattern type signature (:ref:`pattern-type-sigs`)
-
--  Class and instance declarations (:ref:`cls-inst-scoped-tyvars`)
-
-In Haskell, a programmer-written type signature is implicitly quantified
-over its free type variables (`Section
-4.1.2 <http://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/decls.html#sect4.1.2>`__ of
-the Haskell Report). Lexically scoped type variables affect this
-implicit quantification rules as follows: any type variable that is in
-scope is *not* universally quantified. For example, if type variable
-``a`` is in scope, then ::
-
-      (e :: a -> a)     means     (e :: a -> a)
-      (e :: b -> b)     means     (e :: forall b. b->b)
-      (e :: a -> b)     means     (e :: forall b. a->b)
-
-.. _decl-type-sigs:
-
-Declaration type signatures
----------------------------
-
-A declaration type signature that has *explicit* quantification (using
-``forall``) brings into scope the explicitly-quantified type variables,
-in the definition of the named function. For example: ::
-
-      f :: forall a. [a] -> [a]
-      f (x:xs) = xs ++ [ x :: a ]
-
-The "``forall a``" brings "``a``" into scope in the definition of
-"``f``".
-
-This only happens if:
-
--  The quantification in ``f``\'s type signature is explicit. For
-   example: ::
-
-         g :: [a] -> [a]
-         g (x:xs) = xs ++ [ x :: a ]
-
-   This program will be rejected, because "``a``" does not scope over
-   the definition of "``g``", so "``x::a``" means "``x::forall a. a``"
-   by Haskell's usual implicit quantification rules.
-
--  The type variable is quantified by the single, syntactically visible,
-   outermost ``forall`` of the type signature. For example, GHC will reject
-   all of the following examples: ::
-
-         f1 :: forall a. forall b. a -> [b] -> [b]
-         f1 _ (x:xs) = xs ++ [ x :: b ]
-
-         f2 :: forall a. a -> forall b. [b] -> [b]
-         f2 _ (x:xs) = xs ++ [ x :: b ]
-
-         type Foo = forall b. [b] -> [b]
-
-         f3 :: Foo
-         f3 (x:xs) = xs ++ [ x :: b ]
-
-   In ``f1`` and ``f2``, the type variable ``b`` is not quantified by the
-   outermost ``forall``, so it is not in scope over the bodies of the
-   functions. Neither is ``b`` in scope over the body of ``f3``, as the
-   ``forall`` is tucked underneath the ``Foo`` type synonym.
-
--  The signature gives a type for a function binding or a bare variable
-   binding, not a pattern binding. For example: ::
-
-         f1 :: forall a. [a] -> [a]
-         f1 (x:xs) = xs ++ [ x :: a ]   -- OK
-
-         f2 :: forall a. [a] -> [a]
-         f2 = \(x:xs) -> xs ++ [ x :: a ]   -- OK
-
-         f3 :: forall a. [a] -> [a]
-         Just f3 = Just (\(x:xs) -> xs ++ [ x :: a ])   -- Not OK!
-
-   ``f1`` is a function binding, and ``f2`` binds a bare variable;
-   in both cases the type signature brings ``a`` into scope.
-   However the binding for ``f3`` is a pattern binding,
-   and so ``f3`` is a fresh variable brought into scope by the pattern,
-   not connected with top level ``f3``.
-   Then type variable ``a`` is not in scope of the right-hand side of ``Just f3 = ...``.
-
-.. _exp-type-sigs:
-
-Expression type signatures
---------------------------
-
-An expression type signature that has *explicit* quantification (using
-``forall``) brings into scope the explicitly-quantified type variables,
-in the annotated expression. For example: ::
-
-    f = runST ( (op >>= \(x :: STRef s Int) -> g x) :: forall s. ST s Bool )
-
-Here, the type signature ``forall s. ST s Bool`` brings the type
-variable ``s`` into scope, in the annotated expression
-``(op >>= \(x :: STRef s Int) -> g x)``.
-
-.. _pattern-type-sigs:
-
-Pattern type signatures
------------------------
-
-A type signature may occur in any pattern; this is a *pattern type
-signature*. For example: ::
-
-    -- f and g assume that 'a' is already in scope
-    f = \(x::Int, y::a) -> x
-
-    g (x::a) = x
-
-    h ((x,y) :: (Int,Bool)) = (y,x)
-
-In the case where all the type variables in the pattern type signature
-are already in scope (i.e. bound by the enclosing context), matters are
-simple: the signature simply constrains the type of the pattern in the
-obvious way.
-
-Unlike expression and declaration type signatures, pattern type
-signatures are not implicitly generalised. The pattern in a *pattern
-binding* may only mention type variables that are already in scope. For
-example: ::
-
-    f :: forall a. [a] -> (Int, [a])
-    f xs = (n, zs)
-      where
-        (ys::[a], n) = (reverse xs, length xs) -- OK
-        (zs::[a])    = xs ++ ys                     -- OK
-
-        Just (v::b)  = ...  -- Not OK; b is not in scope
-
-Here, the pattern signatures for ``ys`` and ``zs`` are fine, but the one
-for ``v`` is not because ``b`` is not in scope.
-
-However, in all patterns *other* than pattern bindings, a pattern type
-signature may mention a type variable that is not in scope; in this
-case, *the signature brings that type variable into scope*. For example: ::
-
-    -- same f and g as above, now assuming that 'a' is not already in scope
-    f = \(x::Int, y::a) -> x           -- 'a' is in scope on RHS of ->
-
-    g (x::a) = x :: a
-
-    hh (Just (v :: b)) = v :: b
-
-The pattern type signature makes the type variable available on the right-hand side of the equation.
-
-Bringing type variables into scope is particularly important
-for existential data constructors. For example: ::
-
-    data T = forall a. MkT [a]
-
-    k :: T -> T
-    k (MkT [t::a]) =
-        MkT t3
-      where
-        (t3::[a]) = [t,t,t]
-
-Here, the pattern type signature ``[t::a]`` mentions a lexical type
-variable that is not already in scope. Indeed, it *must not* already be in
-scope, because it is bound by the pattern match.
-The effect is to bring it into scope,
-standing for the existentially-bound type variable.
-
-It does seem odd that the existentially-bound type variable *must not*
-be already in scope. Contrast that usually name-bindings merely shadow
-(make a 'hole') in a same-named outer variable's scope.
-But we must have *some* way to bring such type variables into scope,
-else we could not name existentially-bound type variables
-in subsequent type signatures.
-
-Compare the two (identical) definitions for examples ``f``, ``g``;
-they are both legal whether or not ``a`` is already in scope.
-They differ in that *if* ``a`` is already in scope, the signature constrains
-the pattern, rather than the pattern binding the variable.
-
-.. _cls-inst-scoped-tyvars:
-
-Class and instance declarations
--------------------------------
-
-The type variables in the head of a ``class`` or ``instance``
-declaration scope over the methods defined in the ``where`` part. You do
-not even need an explicit ``forall`` (although you are allowed an explicit
-``forall`` in an ``instance`` declaration; see :ref:`explicit-foralls`).
-For example: ::
-
-      class C a where
-        op :: [a] -> a
-
-        op xs = let ys::[a]
-                    ys = reverse xs
-                in
-                head ys
-
-      instance C b => C [b] where
-        op xs = reverse (head (xs :: [[b]]))
-
-Bindings and generalisation
-===========================
-
-.. _monomorphism:
-
-Switching off the dreaded Monomorphism Restriction
---------------------------------------------------
-
-.. extension:: NoMonomorphismRestriction
-    :shortdesc: Disable the monomorphism restriction.
-
-    :default: on
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Prevents the compiler from applying the monomorphism restriction to
-    bindings lacking explicit type signatures.
-
-Haskell's monomorphism restriction (see `Section
-4.5.5 <http://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/decls.html#sect4.5.5>`__ of
-the Haskell Report) can be completely switched off by
-:extension:`NoMonomorphismRestriction`. Since GHC 7.8.1, the monomorphism
-restriction is switched off by default in GHCi's interactive options
-(see :ref:`ghci-interactive-options`).
-
-.. _mono-local-binds:
-
-Let-generalisation
-------------------
-
-.. extension:: MonoLocalBinds
-    :shortdesc: Enable do not generalise local bindings.
-        Implied by :extension:`TypeFamilies` and :extension:`GADTs`.
-
-    :since: 6.12.1
-
-    Infer less polymorphic types for local bindings by default.
-
-An ML-style language usually generalises the type of any ``let``\-bound or
-``where``\-bound variable, so that it is as polymorphic as possible. With the
-extension :extension:`MonoLocalBinds` GHC implements a slightly more conservative
-policy, using the following rules:
-
--  A variable is *closed* if and only if
-
-   -  the variable is let-bound
-
-   -  one of the following holds:
-
-      -  the variable has an explicit type signature that has no free
-         type variables, or
-
-      -  its binding group is fully generalised (see next bullet)
-
--  A binding group is *fully generalised* if and only if
-
-   -  each of its free variables is either imported or closed, and
-
-   -  the binding is not affected by the monomorphism restriction
-      (`Haskell Report, Section
-      4.5.5 <http://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/decls.html#sect4.5.5>`__)
-
-For example, consider ::
-
-    f x = x + 1
-    g x = let h y = f y * 2
-              k z = z+x
-          in  h x + k x
-
-Here ``f`` is generalised because it has no free variables; and its
-binding group is unaffected by the monomorphism restriction; and hence
-``f`` is closed. The same reasoning applies to ``g``, except that it has
-one closed free variable, namely ``f``. Similarly ``h`` is closed, *even
-though it is not bound at top level*, because its only free variable
-``f`` is closed. But ``k`` is not closed, because it mentions ``x``
-which is not closed (because it is not let-bound).
-
-Notice that a top-level binding that is affected by the monomorphism
-restriction is not closed, and hence may in turn prevent generalisation
-of bindings that mention it.
-
-The rationale for this more conservative strategy is given in `the
-papers <https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/jfp-outsidein.pdf>`__
-"Let should not be generalised" and "Modular type inference with local
-assumptions", and a related `blog post
-<https://www.haskell.org/ghc/blog/20100930-LetGeneralisationInGhc7.html>`__.
-
-The extension :extension:`MonoLocalBinds` is implied by :extension:`TypeFamilies`
-and :extension:`GADTs`. You can switch it off again with
-:extension:`NoMonoLocalBinds <MonoLocalBinds>` but type inference becomes
-less predictable if you do so. (Read the papers!)
-
-.. _visible-type-application:
-
-Visible type application
-========================
-
-.. extension:: TypeApplications
-    :shortdesc: Enable type application syntax in terms and types.
-
-    :since: 8.0.1
-
-    Allow the use of type application syntax.
-
-The :extension:`TypeApplications` extension allows you to use
-*visible type application* in expressions. Here is an
-example: ``show (read @Int "5")``. The ``@Int``
-is the visible type application; it specifies the value of the type variable
-in ``read``'s type.
-
-A visible type application is preceded with an ``@``
-sign. (To disambiguate the syntax, the ``@`` must be
-preceded with a non-identifier letter, usually a space. For example,
-``read@Int 5`` would not parse.) It can be used whenever
-the full polymorphic type of the function is known. If the function
-is an identifier (the common case), its type is considered known only when
-the identifier has been given a type signature. If the identifier does
-not have a type signature, visible type application cannot be used.
-
-GHC also permits visible kind application, where users can declare the kind
-arguments to be instantiated in kind-polymorphic cases. Its usage parallels
-visible type application in the term level, as specified above.
-
-.. _inferred-vs-specified:
-
-Inferred vs. specified type variables
--------------------------------------
-
-.. index::
-   single: type variable; inferred vs. specified
-
-GHC tracks a distinction between what we call *inferred* and *specified*
-type variables. Only specified type variables are available for instantiation
-with visible type application. An example illustrates this well::
-
-  f :: (Eq b, Eq a) => a -> b -> Bool
-  f x y = (x == x) && (y == y)
-
-  g x y = (x == x) && (y == y)
-
-The functions ``f`` and ``g`` have the same body, but only ``f`` is given
-a type signature. When GHC is figuring out how to process a visible type application,
-it must know what variable to instantiate. It thus must be able to provide
-an ordering to the type variables in a function's type.
-
-If the user has supplied a type signature, as in ``f``, then this is easy:
-we just take the ordering from the type signature, going left to right and
-using the first occurrence of a variable to choose its position within the
-ordering. Thus, the variables in ``f`` will be ``b``, then ``a``.
-
-In contrast, there is no reliable way to do this for ``g``; we will not know
-whether ``Eq a`` or ``Eq b`` will be listed first in the constraint in ``g``\'s
-type. In order to have visible type application be robust between releases of
-GHC, we thus forbid its use with ``g``.
-
-We say that the type variables in ``f`` are *specified*, while those in
-``g`` are *inferred*. The general rule is this: if the user has written
-a type variable in the source program, it is *specified*; if not, it is
-*inferred*.
-
-This rule applies in datatype declarations, too. For example, if we have
-``data Proxy a = Proxy`` (and :extension:`PolyKinds` is enabled), then
-``a`` will be assigned kind ``k``, where ``k`` is a fresh kind variable.
-Because ``k`` was not written by the user, it will be unavailable for
-type application in the type of the constructor ``Proxy``; only the ``a``
-will be available.
-
-When :ghc-flag:`-fprint-explicit-foralls` is enabled, inferred variables
-are printed in braces. Thus, the type of the data constructor ``Proxy``
-from the previous example would be ``forall {k} (a :: k). Proxy a``.
-We can observe this behavior in a GHCi session: ::
-
-  > :set -XTypeApplications -fprint-explicit-foralls
-  > let myLength1 :: Foldable f => f a -> Int; myLength1 = length
-  > :type +v myLength1
-  myLength1 :: forall (f :: * -> *) a. Foldable f => f a -> Int
-  > let myLength2 = length
-  > :type +v myLength2
-  myLength2 :: forall {a} {t :: * -> *}. Foldable t => t a -> Int
-  > :type +v myLength2 @[]
-
-  <interactive>:1:1: error:
-      • Cannot apply expression of type ‘t0 a0 -> Int’
-        to a visible type argument ‘[]’
-      • In the expression: myLength2 @[]
-
-Notice that since ``myLength1`` was defined with an explicit type signature,
-:ghci-cmd:`:type +v` reports that all of its type variables are available
-for type application. On the other hand, ``myLength2`` was not given a type
-signature. As a result, all of its type variables are surrounded with braces,
-and trying to use visible type application with ``myLength2`` fails.
-
-Also note the use of :ghci-cmd:`:type +v` in the GHCi session above instead
-of :ghci-cmd:`:type`. This is because :ghci-cmd:`:type` gives you the type
-that would be inferred for a variable assigned to the expression provided
-(that is, the type of ``x`` in ``let x = <expr>``). As we saw above with
-``myLength2``, this type will have no variables available to visible type
-application. On the other hand, :ghci-cmd:`:type +v` gives you the actual
-type of the expression provided. To illustrate this: ::
-
-  > :type myLength1
-  myLength1 :: forall {a} {f :: * -> *}. Foldable f => f a -> Int
-  > :type myLength2
-  myLength2 :: forall {a} {t :: * -> *}. Foldable t => t a -> Int
-
-Using :ghci-cmd:`:type` might lead one to conclude that none of the type
-variables in ``myLength1``'s type signature are available for type
-application. This isn't true, however! Be sure to use :ghci-cmd:`:type +v`
-if you want the most accurate information with respect to visible type
-application properties.
-
-.. index::
-   single: ScopedSort
-
-.. _ScopedSort:
-
-Ordering of specified variables
--------------------------------
-
-In the simple case of the previous section, we can say that specified variables
-appear in left-to-right order. However, not all cases are so simple. Here are
-the rules in the subtler cases:
-
-- If an identifier's type has a ``forall``, then the order of type variables
-  as written in the ``forall`` is retained.
-
-- If any of the variables depend on other variables (that is, if some
-  of the variables are *kind* variables), the variables are reordered
-  so that kind variables come before type variables, preserving the
-  left-to-right order as much as possible. That is, GHC performs a
-  stable topological sort on the variables. Example::
-
-    h :: Proxy (a :: (j, k)) -> Proxy (b :: Proxy a) -> ()
-      -- as if h :: forall j k a b. ...
-
-  In this example, ``a`` depends on ``j`` and ``k``, and ``b`` depends on ``a``.
-  Even though ``a`` appears lexically before ``j`` and ``k``, ``j`` and ``k``
-  are quantified first, because ``a`` depends on ``j`` and ``k``. Note further
-  that ``j`` and ``k`` are not reordered with respect to each other, even
-  though doing so would not violate dependency conditions.
-
-  A "stable topological sort" here, we mean that we perform this algorithm
-  (which we call *ScopedSort*):
-
-  * Work left-to-right through the input list of type variables, with a cursor.
-  * If variable ``v`` at the cursor is depended on by any earlier variable ``w``,
-    move ``v`` immediately before the leftmost such ``w``.
-
-- Class methods' type arguments include the class type
-  variables, followed by any variables an individual method is polymorphic
-  in. So, ``class Monad m where return :: a -> m a`` means
-  that ``return``'s type arguments are ``m, a``.
-
-- With the :extension:`RankNTypes` extension
-  (:ref:`universal-quantification`), it is possible to declare
-  type arguments somewhere other than the beginning of a type. For example,
-  we can have ``pair :: forall a. a -> forall b. b -> (a, b)``
-  and then say ``pair @Bool True @Char`` which would have
-  type ``Char -> (Bool, Char)``.
-
-- Partial type signatures (:ref:`partial-type-signatures`)
-  work nicely with visible type
-  application. If you want to specify only the second type argument to
-  ``wurble``, then you can say ``wurble @_ @Int``.
-  The first argument is a wildcard, just like in a partial type signature.
-  However, if used in a visible type application/visible kind application,
-  it is *not* necessary to specify :extension:`PartialTypeSignatures` and your
-  code will not generate a warning informing you of the omitted type.
-
-The section in this manual on kind polymorphism describes how variables
-in type and class declarations are ordered (:ref:`inferring-variable-order`).
-
-.. _implicit-parameters:
-
-Implicit parameters
-===================
-
-.. extension:: ImplicitParams
-    :shortdesc: Enable Implicit Parameters.
-
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Allow definition of functions expecting implicit parameters.
-
-Implicit parameters are implemented as described in [Lewis2000]_ and enabled
-with the option :extension:`ImplicitParams`. (Most of the following, still rather
-incomplete, documentation is due to Jeff Lewis.)
-
-.. [Lewis2000]
-    "Implicit parameters: dynamic scoping with static types",
-    J Lewis, MB Shields, E Meijer, J Launchbury,
-    *27th ACM Symposium on Principles of Programming Languages (POPL'00)*,
-    Boston, Jan 2000.
-
-A variable is called *dynamically bound* when it is bound by the calling
-context of a function and *statically bound* when bound by the callee's
-context. In Haskell, all variables are statically bound. Dynamic binding
-of variables is a notion that goes back to Lisp, but was later discarded
-in more modern incarnations, such as Scheme. Dynamic binding can be very
-confusing in an untyped language, and unfortunately, typed languages, in
-particular Hindley-Milner typed languages like Haskell, only support
-static scoping of variables.
-
-However, by a simple extension to the type class system of Haskell, we
-can support dynamic binding. Basically, we express the use of a
-dynamically bound variable as a constraint on the type. These
-constraints lead to types of the form ``(?x::t') => t``, which says
-"this function uses a dynamically-bound variable ``?x`` of type ``t'``".
-For example, the following expresses the type of a sort function,
-implicitly parameterised by a comparison function named ``cmp``. ::
-
-      sort :: (?cmp :: a -> a -> Bool) => [a] -> [a]
-
-The dynamic binding constraints are just a new form of predicate in the
-type class system.
-
-An implicit parameter occurs in an expression using the special form
-``?x``, where ``x`` is any valid identifier (e.g. ``ord ?x`` is a valid
-expression). Use of this construct also introduces a new dynamic-binding
-constraint in the type of the expression. For example, the following
-definition shows how we can define an implicitly parameterised sort
-function in terms of an explicitly parameterised ``sortBy`` function: ::
-
-      sortBy :: (a -> a -> Bool) -> [a] -> [a]
-
-      sort   :: (?cmp :: a -> a -> Bool) => [a] -> [a]
-      sort    = sortBy ?cmp
-
-Implicit-parameter type constraints
------------------------------------
-
-Dynamic binding constraints behave just like other type class
-constraints in that they are automatically propagated. Thus, when a
-function is used, its implicit parameters are inherited by the function
-that called it. For example, our ``sort`` function might be used to pick
-out the least value in a list: ::
-
-      least   :: (?cmp :: a -> a -> Bool) => [a] -> a
-      least xs = head (sort xs)
-
-Without lifting a finger, the ``?cmp`` parameter is propagated to become
-a parameter of ``least`` as well. With explicit parameters, the default
-is that parameters must always be explicit propagated. With implicit
-parameters, the default is to always propagate them.
-
-An implicit-parameter type constraint differs from other type class
-constraints in the following way: All uses of a particular implicit
-parameter must have the same type. This means that the type of
-``(?x, ?x)`` is ``(?x::a) => (a,a)``, and not
-``(?x::a, ?x::b) => (a, b)``, as would be the case for type class
-constraints.
-
-You can't have an implicit parameter in the context of a class or
-instance declaration. For example, both these declarations are illegal: ::
-
-      class (?x::Int) => C a where ...
-      instance (?x::a) => Foo [a] where ...
-
-Reason: exactly which implicit parameter you pick up depends on exactly
-where you invoke a function. But the "invocation" of instance
-declarations is done behind the scenes by the compiler, so it's hard to
-figure out exactly where it is done. Easiest thing is to outlaw the
-offending types.
-
-Implicit-parameter constraints do not cause ambiguity. For example,
-consider: ::
-
-       f :: (?x :: [a]) => Int -> Int
-       f n = n + length ?x
-
-       g :: (Read a, Show a) => String -> String
-       g s = show (read s)
-
-Here, ``g`` has an ambiguous type, and is rejected, but ``f`` is fine.
-The binding for ``?x`` at ``f``\ 's call site is quite unambiguous, and
-fixes the type ``a``.
-
-Implicit-parameter bindings
----------------------------
-
-An implicit parameter is *bound* using the standard ``let`` or ``where``
-binding forms. For example, we define the ``min`` function by binding
-``cmp``. ::
-
-      min :: Ord a => [a] -> a
-      min  = let ?cmp = (<=) in least
-
-A group of implicit-parameter bindings may occur anywhere a normal group
-of Haskell bindings can occur, except at top level. That is, they can
-occur in a ``let`` (including in a list comprehension, or do-notation,
-or pattern guards), or a ``where`` clause. Note the following points:
-
--  An implicit-parameter binding group must be a collection of simple
-   bindings to implicit-style variables (no function-style bindings, and
-   no type signatures); these bindings are neither polymorphic or
-   recursive.
-
--  You may not mix implicit-parameter bindings with ordinary bindings in
-   a single ``let`` expression; use two nested ``let``\ s instead. (In
-   the case of ``where`` you are stuck, since you can't nest ``where``
-   clauses.)
-
--  You may put multiple implicit-parameter bindings in a single binding
-   group; but they are *not* treated as a mutually recursive group (as
-   ordinary ``let`` bindings are). Instead they are treated as a
-   non-recursive group, simultaneously binding all the implicit
-   parameter. The bindings are not nested, and may be re-ordered without
-   changing the meaning of the program. For example, consider: ::
-
-         f t = let { ?x = t; ?y = ?x+(1::Int) } in ?x + ?y
-
-   The use of ``?x`` in the binding for ``?y`` does not "see" the
-   binding for ``?x``, so the type of ``f`` is ::
-
-         f :: (?x::Int) => Int -> Int
-
-Implicit parameters and polymorphic recursion
----------------------------------------------
-
-Consider these two definitions: ::
-
-      len1 :: [a] -> Int
-      len1 xs = let ?acc = 0 in len_acc1 xs
-
-      len_acc1 [] = ?acc
-      len_acc1 (x:xs) = let ?acc = ?acc + (1::Int) in len_acc1 xs
-
-      ------------
-
-      len2 :: [a] -> Int
-      len2 xs = let ?acc = 0 in len_acc2 xs
-
-      len_acc2 :: (?acc :: Int) => [a] -> Int
-      len_acc2 [] = ?acc
-      len_acc2 (x:xs) = let ?acc = ?acc + (1::Int) in len_acc2 xs
-
-The only difference between the two groups is that in the second group
-``len_acc`` is given a type signature. In the former case, ``len_acc1``
-is monomorphic in its own right-hand side, so the implicit parameter
-``?acc`` is not passed to the recursive call. In the latter case,
-because ``len_acc2`` has a type signature, the recursive call is made to
-the *polymorphic* version, which takes ``?acc`` as an implicit
-parameter. So we get the following results in GHCi:
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-      Prog> len1 "hello"
-      0
-      Prog> len2 "hello"
-      5
-
-Adding a type signature dramatically changes the result! This is a
-rather counter-intuitive phenomenon, worth watching out for.
-
-Implicit parameters and monomorphism
-------------------------------------
-
-GHC applies the dreaded Monomorphism Restriction (section 4.5.5 of the
-Haskell Report) to implicit parameters. For example, consider: ::
-
-     f :: Int -> Int
-     f v = let ?x = 0     in
-           let y = ?x + v in
-           let ?x = 5     in
-           y
-
-Since the binding for ``y`` falls under the Monomorphism Restriction it
-is not generalised, so the type of ``y`` is simply ``Int``, not
-``(?x::Int) => Int``. Hence, ``(f 9)`` returns result ``9``. If you add
-a type signature for ``y``, then ``y`` will get type
-``(?x::Int) => Int``, so the occurrence of ``y`` in the body of the
-``let`` will see the inner binding of ``?x``, so ``(f 9)`` will return
-``14``.
-
-Arbitrary-rank polymorphism
-===========================
-
-.. extension:: RankNTypes
-    :shortdesc: Enable rank-N types.
-        Implied by :extension:`ImpredicativeTypes`.
-
-    :implies: :extension:`ExplicitForAll`
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Allow types of arbitrary rank.
-
-.. extension:: Rank2Types
-    :shortdesc: Enable rank-2 types.
-        Synonym for :extension:`RankNTypes`.
-
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    A deprecated alias of :extension:`RankNTypes`.
-
-GHC's type system supports *arbitrary-rank* explicit universal
-quantification in types. For example, all the following types are legal: ::
-
-        f1 :: forall a b. a -> b -> a
-        g1 :: forall a b. (Ord a, Eq  b) => a -> b -> a
-
-        f2 :: (forall a. a->a) -> Int -> Int
-        g2 :: (forall a. Eq a => [a] -> a -> Bool) -> Int -> Int
-
-        f3 :: ((forall a. a->a) -> Int) -> Bool -> Bool
-
-        f4 :: Int -> (forall a. a -> a)
-
-Here, ``f1`` and ``g1`` are rank-1 types, and can be written in standard
-Haskell (e.g. ``f1 :: a->b->a``). The ``forall`` makes explicit the
-universal quantification that is implicitly added by Haskell.
-
-The functions ``f2`` and ``g2`` have rank-2 types; the ``forall`` is on
-the left of a function arrow. As ``g2`` shows, the polymorphic type on
-the left of the function arrow can be overloaded.
-
-The function ``f3`` has a rank-3 type; it has rank-2 types on the left
-of a function arrow.
-
-The language option :extension:`RankNTypes` (which implies
-:extension:`ExplicitForAll`) enables higher-rank
-types. That is, you can nest ``forall``\ s arbitrarily deep in function
-arrows. For example, a forall-type (also called a "type scheme"),
-including a type-class context, is legal:
-
--  On the left or right (see ``f4``, for example) of a function arrow
-
--  As the argument of a constructor, or type of a field, in a data type
-   declaration. For example, any of the ``f1, f2, f3, g1, g2`` above would
-   be valid field type signatures.
-
--  As the type of an implicit parameter
-
--  In a pattern type signature (see :ref:`scoped-type-variables`)
-
-The :extension:`RankNTypes` option is also required for any type with a
-``forall`` or context to the right of an arrow (e.g.
-``f :: Int -> forall a. a->a``, or ``g :: Int -> Ord a => a -> a``).
-Such types are technically rank 1, but are clearly not Haskell-98, and
-an extra extension did not seem worth the bother.
-
-In particular, in ``data`` and ``newtype`` declarations the constructor
-arguments may be polymorphic types of any rank; see examples in
-:ref:`univ`. Note that the declared types are nevertheless always
-monomorphic. This is important because by default GHC will not
-instantiate type variables to a polymorphic type
-(:ref:`impredicative-polymorphism`).
-
-The obsolete language option :extension:`Rank2Types` is a synonym for
-:extension:`RankNTypes`. They used to specify finer distinctions that GHC no
-longer makes.
-
-.. _univ:
-
-Examples
---------
-
-These are examples of ``data`` and ``newtype`` declarations whose data
-constructors have polymorphic argument types: ::
-
-    data T a = T1 (forall b. b -> b -> b) a
-
-    data MonadT m = MkMonad { return :: forall a. a -> m a,
-                              bind   :: forall a b. m a -> (a -> m b) -> m b
-                            }
-
-    newtype Swizzle = MkSwizzle (forall a. Ord a => [a] -> [a])
-
-The constructors have rank-2 types: ::
-
-    T1 :: forall a. (forall b. b -> b -> b) -> a -> T a
-
-    MkMonad :: forall m. (forall a. a -> m a)
-                      -> (forall a b. m a -> (a -> m b) -> m b)
-                      -> MonadT m
-
-    MkSwizzle :: (forall a. Ord a => [a] -> [a]) -> Swizzle
-
-In earlier versions of GHC, it was possible to omit the ``forall`` in
-the type of the constructor if there was an explicit context. For
-example: ::
-
-    newtype Swizzle' = MkSwizzle' (Ord a => [a] -> [a])
-
-Since GHC 8.0 declarations such as ``MkSwizzle'`` will cause an out-of-scope
-error.
-
-As for type signatures, implicit quantification happens for
-non-overloaded types too. So if you write this: ::
-
-      f :: (a -> a) -> a
-
-it's just as if you had written this: ::
-
-      f :: forall a. (a -> a) -> a
-
-That is, since the type variable ``a`` isn't in scope, it's implicitly
-universally quantified.
-
-You construct values of types ``T1, MonadT, Swizzle`` by applying the
-constructor to suitable values, just as usual. For example, ::
-
-        a1 :: T Int
-        a1 = T1 (\xy->x) 3
-
-        a2, a3 :: Swizzle
-        a2 = MkSwizzle sort
-        a3 = MkSwizzle reverse
-
-        a4 :: MonadT Maybe
-        a4 = let r x = Just x
-             b m k = case m of
-                   Just y -> k y
-                   Nothing -> Nothing
-             in
-             MkMonad r b
-
-        mkTs :: (forall b. b -> b -> b) -> a -> [T a]
-        mkTs f x y = [T1 f x, T1 f y]
-
-The type of the argument can, as usual, be more general than the type
-required, as ``(MkSwizzle reverse)`` shows. (``reverse`` does not need
-the ``Ord`` constraint.)
-
-When you use pattern matching, the bound variables may now have
-polymorphic types. For example: ::
-
-        f :: T a -> a -> (a, Char)
-        f (T1 w k) x = (w k x, w 'c' 'd')
-
-        g :: (Ord a, Ord b) => Swizzle -> [a] -> (a -> b) -> [b]
-        g (MkSwizzle s) xs f = s (map f (s xs))
-
-        h :: MonadT m -> [m a] -> m [a]
-        h m [] = return m []
-        h m (x:xs) = bind m x          $ \y ->
-                     bind m (h m xs)   $ \ys ->
-                     return m (y:ys)
-
-In the function ``h`` we use the record selectors ``return`` and
-``bind`` to extract the polymorphic bind and return functions from the
-``MonadT`` data structure, rather than using pattern matching.
-
-
-.. _higher-rank-type-inference:
-
-Type inference
---------------
-
-In general, type inference for arbitrary-rank types is undecidable. GHC
-uses an algorithm proposed by Odersky and Laufer ("Putting type
-annotations to work", POPL'96) to get a decidable algorithm by requiring
-some help from the programmer. We do not yet have a formal specification
-of "some help" but the rule is this:
-
-    For a lambda-bound or case-bound variable, x, either the programmer
-    provides an explicit polymorphic type for x, or GHC's type inference
-    will assume that x's type has no foralls in it.
-
-What does it mean to "provide" an explicit type for x? You can do that
-by giving a type signature for x directly, using a pattern type
-signature (:ref:`scoped-type-variables`), thus: ::
-
-    \ f :: (forall a. a->a) -> (f True, f 'c')
-
-Alternatively, you can give a type signature to the enclosing context,
-which GHC can "push down" to find the type for the variable: ::
-
-    (\ f -> (f True, f 'c')) :: (forall a. a->a) -> (Bool,Char)
-
-Here the type signature on the expression can be pushed inwards to give
-a type signature for f. Similarly, and more commonly, one can give a
-type signature for the function itself: ::
-
-    h :: (forall a. a->a) -> (Bool,Char)
-    h f = (f True, f 'c')
-
-You don't need to give a type signature if the lambda bound variable is
-a constructor argument. Here is an example we saw earlier: ::
-
-    f :: T a -> a -> (a, Char)
-    f (T1 w k) x = (w k x, w 'c' 'd')
-
-Here we do not need to give a type signature to ``w``, because it is an
-argument of constructor ``T1`` and that tells GHC all it needs to know.
-
-
-.. _implicit-quantification:
-
-Implicit quantification
------------------------
-
-GHC performs implicit quantification as follows. At the outermost level
-(only) of user-written types, if and only if there is no explicit
-``forall``, GHC finds all the type variables mentioned in the type that
-are not already in scope, and universally quantifies them. For example,
-the following pairs are equivalent: ::
-
-      f :: a -> a
-      f :: forall a. a -> a
-
-      g (x::a) = let
-                    h :: a -> b -> b
-                    h x y = y
-                 in ...
-      g (x::a) = let
-                    h :: forall b. a -> b -> b
-                    h x y = y
-                 in ...
-
-Notice that GHC always adds implicit quantifiers *at the outermost level*
-of a user-written type; it
-does *not* find the inner-most possible quantification
-point. For example: ::
-
-      f :: (a -> a) -> Int
-               -- MEANS
-      f :: forall a. (a -> a) -> Int
-               -- NOT
-      f :: (forall a. a -> a) -> Int
-
-
-      g :: (Ord a => a -> a) -> Int
-               -- MEANS
-      g :: forall a. (Ord a => a -> a) -> Int
-               -- NOT
-      g :: (forall a. Ord a => a -> a) -> Int
-
-If you want the latter type, you can write
-your ``forall``\s explicitly. Indeed, doing so is strongly advised for
-rank-2 types.
-
-Sometimes there *is* no "outermost level", in which case no
-implicit quantification happens: ::
-
-      data PackMap a b s t = PackMap (Monad f => (a -> f b) -> s -> f t)
-
-This is rejected because there is no "outermost level" for the types on the RHS
-(it would obviously be terrible to add extra parameters to ``PackMap``),
-so no implicit quantification happens, and the declaration is rejected
-(with "``f`` is out of scope").  Solution: use an explicit ``forall``: ::
-
-      data PackMap a b s t = PackMap (forall f. Monad f => (a -> f b) -> s -> f t)
-
-.. _impredicative-polymorphism:
-
-Impredicative polymorphism
-==========================
-
-.. extension:: ImpredicativeTypes
-    :shortdesc: Enable impredicative types.
-        Implies :extension:`RankNTypes`.
-
-    :implies: :extension:`RankNTypes`
-    :since: 6.10.1
-
-    Allow impredicative polymorphic types.
-
-In general, GHC will only instantiate a polymorphic function at a
-monomorphic type (one with no foralls). For example, ::
-
-    runST :: (forall s. ST s a) -> a
-    id :: forall b. b -> b
-
-    foo = id runST   -- Rejected
-
-The definition of ``foo`` is rejected because one would have to
-instantiate ``id``\'s type with ``b := (forall s. ST s a) -> a``, and
-that is not allowed. Instantiating polymorphic type variables with
-polymorphic types is called *impredicative polymorphism*.
-
-GHC has extremely flaky support for *impredicative polymorphism*,
-enabled with :extension:`ImpredicativeTypes`. If it worked, this would mean
-that you *could* call a polymorphic function at a polymorphic type, and
-parameterise data structures over polymorphic types. For example: ::
-
-      f :: Maybe (forall a. [a] -> [a]) -> Maybe ([Int], [Char])
-      f (Just g) = Just (g [3], g "hello")
-      f Nothing  = Nothing
-
-Notice here that the ``Maybe`` type is parameterised by the
-*polymorphic* type ``(forall a. [a] -> [a])``. However *the extension
-should be considered highly experimental, and certainly un-supported*.
-You are welcome to try it, but please don't rely on it working
-consistently, or working the same in subsequent releases. See
-:ghc-wiki:`this wiki page <impredicative-polymorphism>` for more details.
-
-If you want impredicative polymorphism, the main workaround is to use a
-newtype wrapper. The ``id runST`` example can be written using this
-workaround like this: ::
-
-    runST :: (forall s. ST s a) -> a
-    id :: forall b. b -> b
-
-    newtype Wrap a = Wrap { unWrap :: (forall s. ST s a) -> a }
-
-    foo :: (forall s. ST s a) -> a
-    foo = unWrap (id (Wrap runST))
-          -- Here id is called at monomorphic type (Wrap a)
-
-.. _typed-holes:
-
-Typed Holes
-===========
-
-Typed holes are a feature of GHC that allows special placeholders
-written with a leading underscore (e.g., "``_``", "``_foo``",
-"``_bar``"), to be used as expressions. During compilation these holes
-will generate an error message that describes which type is expected at
-the hole's location, information about the origin of any free type
-variables, and a list of local bindings that might help fill the hole
-and bindings in scope that fit the type of the hole that might help fill
-the hole with actual code. Typed holes are always enabled in GHC.
-
-The goal of typed holes is to help with writing Haskell code rather than
-to change the type system. Typed holes can be used to obtain extra
-information from the type checker, which might otherwise be hard to get.
-Normally, using GHCi, users can inspect the (inferred) type signatures
-of all top-level bindings. However, this method is less convenient with
-terms that are not defined on top-level or inside complex expressions.
-Holes allow the user to check the type of the term they are about to
-write.
-
-For example, compiling the following module with GHC: ::
-
-    f :: a -> a
-    f x = _
-
-will fail with the following error: ::
-
-    hole.hs:2:7:
-        Found hole `_' with type: a
-        Where: `a' is a rigid type variable bound by
-                   the type signature for f :: a -> a at hole.hs:1:6
-        In the expression: _
-        In an equation for `f': f x = _
-        Relevant bindings include
-          x :: a (bound at hole.hs:2:3)
-          f :: a -> a (bound at hole.hs:2:1)
-        Valid hole fits include x :: a (bound at hole.hs:2:3)
-
-Here are some more details:
-
--  A "``Found hole``" error usually terminates compilation, like any
-   other type error. After all, you have omitted some code from your
-   program. Nevertheless, you can run and test a piece of code
-   containing holes, by using the :ghc-flag:`-fdefer-typed-holes` flag. This
-   flag defers errors produced by typed holes until runtime, and
-   converts them into compile-time warnings. These warnings can in turn
-   be suppressed entirely by :ghc-flag:`-Wno-typed-holes <-Wtyped-holes>`.
-
-   The same behaviour for "``Variable out of scope``" errors, it terminates
-   compilation by default. You can defer such errors by using the
-   :ghc-flag:`-fdefer-out-of-scope-variables` flag. This flag defers errors
-   produced by out of scope variables until runtime, and
-   converts them into compile-time warnings. These warnings can in turn
-   be suppressed entirely by :ghc-flag:`-Wno-deferred-out-of-scope-variables
-   <-Wdeferred-out-of-scope-variables>`.
-
-   The result is that a hole or a variable will behave like ``undefined``, but with
-   the added benefits that it shows a warning at compile time, and will
-   show the same message if it gets evaluated at runtime. This behaviour
-   follows that of the :ghc-flag:`-fdefer-type-errors` option, which implies
-   :ghc-flag:`-fdefer-typed-holes` and :ghc-flag:`-fdefer-out-of-scope-variables`.
-   See :ref:`defer-type-errors`.
-
--  All unbound identifiers are treated as typed holes, *whether or not
-   they start with an underscore*. The only difference is in the error
-   message: ::
-
-       cons z = z : True : _x : y
-
-   yields the errors
-
-   .. code-block:: none
-
-       Foo.hs:3:21: error:
-          Found hole: _x :: Bool
-          Or perhaps ‘_x’ is mis-spelled, or not in scope
-          In the first argument of ‘(:)’, namely ‘_x’
-          In the second argument of ‘(:)’, namely ‘_x : y’
-          In the second argument of ‘(:)’, namely ‘True : _x : y’
-          Relevant bindings include
-            z :: Bool (bound at Foo.hs:3:6)
-          cons :: Bool -> [Bool] (bound at Foo.hs:3:1)
-          Valid hole fits include
-            z :: Bool (bound at mpt.hs:2:6)
-            otherwise :: Bool
-              (imported from ‘Prelude’ at mpt.hs:1:8-10
-              (and originally defined in ‘GHC.Base’))
-            False :: Bool
-              (imported from ‘Prelude’ at mpt.hs:1:8-10
-              (and originally defined in ‘GHC.Types’))
-            True :: Bool
-              (imported from ‘Prelude’ at mpt.hs:1:8-10
-              (and originally defined in ‘GHC.Types’))
-            maxBound :: forall a. Bounded a => a
-              with maxBound @Bool
-              (imported from ‘Prelude’ at mpt.hs:1:8-10
-              (and originally defined in ‘GHC.Enum’))
-            minBound :: forall a. Bounded a => a
-              with minBound @Bool
-              (imported from ‘Prelude’ at mpt.hs:1:8-10
-              (and originally defined in ‘GHC.Enum’))
-
-       Foo.hs:3:26: error:
-           Variable not in scope: y :: [Bool]
-
-   More information is given for explicit holes (i.e. ones that start
-   with an underscore), than for out-of-scope variables, because the
-   latter are often unintended typos, so the extra information is
-   distracting. If you want the detailed information, use a leading
-   underscore to make explicit your intent to use a hole.
-
--  Unbound identifiers with the same name are never unified, even within
-   the same function, but shown individually. For example: ::
-
-       cons = _x : _x
-
-   results in the following errors:
-
-   .. code-block:: none
-
-      unbound.hs:1:8:
-          Found hole '_x' with type: a
-          Where: `a' is a rigid type variable bound by
-                     the inferred type of cons :: [a] at unbound.hs:1:1
-          In the first argument of `(:)', namely `_x'
-          In the expression: _x : _x
-          In an equation for `cons': cons = _x : _x
-          Relevant bindings include cons :: [a] (bound at unbound.hs:1:1)
-
-      unbound.hs:1:13:
-          Found hole: _x :: [a]
-          Where: ‘a’ is a rigid type variable bound by
-                  the inferred type of cons :: [a]
-                  at unbound.hs:3:1-12
-          Or perhaps ‘_x’ is mis-spelled, or not in scope
-          In the second argument of ‘(:)’, namely ‘_x’
-          In the expression: _x : _x
-          In an equation for ‘cons’: cons = _x : _x
-          Relevant bindings include cons :: [a] (bound at unbound.hs:3:1)
-          Valid hole fits include
-            cons :: forall a. [a]
-              with cons @a
-              (defined at mpt.hs:3:1)
-            mempty :: forall a. Monoid a => a
-              with mempty @[a]
-              (imported from ‘Prelude’ at mpt.hs:1:8-10
-              (and originally defined in ‘GHC.Base’))
-
-   Notice the two different types reported for the two different
-   occurrences of ``_x``.
-
--  No language extension is required to use typed holes. The lexeme
-   "``_``" was previously illegal in Haskell, but now has a more
-   informative error message. The lexeme "``_x``" is a perfectly legal
-   variable, and its behaviour is unchanged when it is in scope. For
-   example ::
-
-       f _x = _x + 1
-
-   does not elicit any errors. Only a variable *that is not in scope*
-   (whether or not it starts with an underscore) is treated as an error
-   (which it always was), albeit now with a more informative error
-   message.
-
--  Unbound data constructors used in expressions behave exactly as
-   above. However, unbound data constructors used in *patterns* cannot
-   be deferred, and instead bring compilation to a halt. (In
-   implementation terms, they are reported by the renamer rather than
-   the type checker.)
-
-- The list of valid hole fits is found by checking which bindings in scope
-  would fit into the hole. As an example, compiling the following module with
-  GHC: ::
-
-      import Data.List (inits)
-
-      g :: [String]
-      g = _ "hello, world"
-
-  yields the errors:
-
-
-  .. code-block:: none
-
-
-    • Found hole: _ :: [Char] -> [String]
-    • In the expression: _
-      In the expression: _ "hello, world"
-      In an equation for ‘g’: g = _ "hello, world"
-    • Relevant bindings include g :: [String] (bound at mpt.hs:6:1)
-      Valid hole fits include
-        lines :: String -> [String]
-          (imported from ‘Prelude’ at mpt.hs:3:8-9
-           (and originally defined in ‘base-4.11.0.0:Data.OldList’))
-        words :: String -> [String]
-          (imported from ‘Prelude’ at mpt.hs:3:8-9
-           (and originally defined in ‘base-4.11.0.0:Data.OldList’))
-        inits :: forall a. [a] -> [[a]]
-          with inits @Char
-          (imported from ‘Data.List’ at mpt.hs:4:19-23
-           (and originally defined in ‘base-4.11.0.0:Data.OldList’))
-        repeat :: forall a. a -> [a]
-          with repeat @String
-          (imported from ‘Prelude’ at mpt.hs:3:8-9
-           (and originally defined in ‘GHC.List’))
-        fail :: forall (m :: * -> *). Monad m => forall a. String -> m a
-          with fail @[] @String
-          (imported from ‘Prelude’ at mpt.hs:3:8-9
-           (and originally defined in ‘GHC.Base’))
-        return :: forall (m :: * -> *). Monad m => forall a. a -> m a
-          with return @[] @String
-          (imported from ‘Prelude’ at mpt.hs:3:8-9
-           (and originally defined in ‘GHC.Base’))
-        pure :: forall (f :: * -> *). Applicative f => forall a. a -> f a
-          with pure @[] @String
-          (imported from ‘Prelude’ at mpt.hs:3:8-9
-           (and originally defined in ‘GHC.Base’))
-        read :: forall a. Read a => String -> a
-          with read @[String]
-          (imported from ‘Prelude’ at mpt.hs:3:8-9
-           (and originally defined in ‘Text.Read’))
-        mempty :: forall a. Monoid a => a
-          with mempty @([Char] -> [String])
-          (imported from ‘Prelude’ at mpt.hs:3:8-9
-           (and originally defined in ‘GHC.Base’))
-
-There are a few flags for controlling the amount of context information shown
-for typed holes:
-
-.. ghc-flag:: -fshow-hole-constraints
-    :shortdesc: Show constraints when reporting typed holes.
-    :type: dynamic
-    :category: verbosity
-
-    When reporting typed holes, also print constraints that are in scope.
-    Example: ::
-
-        f :: Eq a => a -> Bool
-        f x = _
-
-    results in the following message:
-
-    .. code-block:: none
-
-      show_constraints.hs:4:7: error:
-          • Found hole: _ :: Bool
-          • In the expression: _
-            In an equation for ‘f’: f x = _
-          • Relevant bindings include
-              x :: a (bound at show_constraints.hs:4:3)
-              f :: a -> Bool (bound at show_constraints.hs:4:1)
-            Constraints include Eq a (from show_constraints.hs:3:1-22)
-            Valid hole fits include
-              otherwise :: Bool
-              False :: Bool
-              True :: Bool
-              maxBound :: forall a. Bounded a => a
-                with maxBound @Bool
-              minBound :: forall a. Bounded a => a
-                with minBound @Bool
-
-.. _typed-hole-valid-hole-fits:
-
-Valid Hole Fits
--------------------
-GHC sometimes suggests valid hole fits for typed holes, which is
-configurable by a few flags.
-
-.. ghc-flag:: -fno-show-valid-hole-fits
-    :shortdesc: Disables showing a list of valid hole fits for typed holes
-        in type error messages.
-    :type: dynamic
-    :category: verbosity
-
-    :default: off
-
-    This flag can be toggled to turn off the display of valid hole fits
-    entirely.
-
-.. ghc-flag:: -fmax-valid-hole-fits=⟨n⟩
-    :shortdesc: *default: 6.* Set the maximum number of valid hole fits for
-        typed holes to display in type error messages.
-    :type: dynamic
-    :reverse: -fno-max-valid-hole-fits
-    :category: verbosity
-
-    :default: 6
-
-    The list of valid hole fits is limited by displaying up to 6
-    hole fits per hole. The number of hole fits shown can be set by this
-    flag. Turning the limit off with :ghc-flag:`-fno-max-valid-hole-fits`
-    displays all found hole fits.
-
-
-.. ghc-flag:: -fshow-type-of-hole-fits
-    :shortdesc: Toggles whether to show the type of the valid hole fits
-       in the output.
-    :type: dynamic
-    :category: verbosity
-    :reverse: -fno-type-of-hole-fits
-
-    :default: on
-
-    By default, the hole fits show the type of the hole fit.
-    This can be turned off by the reverse of this flag.
-
-
-
-.. ghc-flag:: -fshow-type-app-of-hole-fits
-    :shortdesc: Toggles whether to show the type application of the valid
-       hole fits in the output.
-    :type: dynamic
-    :category: verbosity
-    :reverse: -fno-show-type-app-of-hole-fits
-
-    :default: on
-
-    By default, the hole fits show the type application needed to make
-    this hole fit fit the type of the hole, e.g. for the hole
-    ``(_ :: Int -> [Int])``, ``mempty`` is a hole fit with
-    ``mempty @(Int -> [Int])``. This can be toggled off with
-    the reverse of this flag.
-
-.. ghc-flag:: -fshow-docs-of-hole-fits
-    :shortdesc: Toggles whether to show the documentation of the valid
-       hole fits in the output.
-    :type: dynamic
-    :category: verbosity
-    :reverse: -fno-show-docs-of-hole-fits
-
-    :default: off
-
-    It can sometime be the case that the name and type of a valid hole
-    fit is not enough to realize what the fit stands for. This flag
-    adds the documentation of the fit to the message, if the
-    documentation is available (and the module from which the function
-    comes was compiled with the ``-haddock`` flag).
-
-.. ghc-flag:: -fshow-type-app-vars-of-hole-fits
-    :shortdesc: Toggles whether to show what type each quantified
-       variable takes in a valid hole fit.
-    :type: dynamic
-    :category: verbosity
-    :reverse: -fno-show-type-app-vars-of-hole-fits
-
-    :default: on
-
-    By default, the hole fits show the type application needed to make
-    this hole fit fit the type of the hole, e.g. for the hole
-    ``(_ :: Int -> [Int])``, ``mempty :: Monoid a => a`` is a hole fit
-    with ``mempty @(Int -> [Int])``. This flag toggles whether to show
-    ``a ~ (Int -> [Int])`` instead of ``mempty @(Int -> [Int])`` in the where
-    clause of the valid hole fit message.
-
-.. ghc-flag:: -fshow-provenance-of-hole-fits
-    :shortdesc: Toggles whether to show the provenance of the valid hole fits
-       in the output.
-    :type: dynamic
-    :category: verbosity
-    :reverse: -fno-show-provenance-of-hole-fits
-
-    :default: on
-
-    By default, each hole fit shows the provenance information of its
-    hole fit, i.e. where it was bound or defined, and what module
-    it was originally defined in if it was imported. This can be toggled
-    off using the reverse of this flag.
-
-
-.. ghc-flag:: -funclutter-valid-hole-fits
-    :shortdesc: Unclutter the list of valid hole fits by not showing
-        provenance nor type applications of suggestions.
-    :type: dynamic
-    :category: verbosity
-
-    :default: off
-
-    This flag can be toggled to decrease the verbosity of the valid hole fit
-    suggestions by not showing the provenance nor type application of the
-    suggestions.
-
-
-
-.. _typed-holes-refinement-hole-fits:
-
-Refinement Hole Fits
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-When the flag :ghc-flag:`-frefinement-level-hole-fits=⟨n⟩` is set to an
-``n`` larger than ``0``, GHC will offer up a list of valid refinement
-hole fits, which are valid hole fits that need up to ``n`` levels of
-additional refinement to be complete, where each level represents an additional
-hole in the hole fit that requires filling in.  As an example, consider the
-hole in ::
-
-  f :: [Integer] -> Integer
-  f = _
-
-When the refinement level is not set, it will only offer valid hole fits
-suggestions: ::
-
-  Valid hole fits include
-    f :: [Integer] -> Integer
-    head :: forall a. [a] -> a
-      with head @Integer
-    last :: forall a. [a] -> a
-      with last @Integer
-    maximum :: forall (t :: * -> *).
-                Foldable t =>
-                forall a. Ord a => t a -> a
-      with maximum @[] @Integer
-    minimum :: forall (t :: * -> *).
-                Foldable t =>
-                forall a. Ord a => t a -> a
-      with minimum @[] @Integer
-    product :: forall (t :: * -> *).
-                Foldable t =>
-                forall a. Num a => t a -> a
-      with product @[] @Integer
-    sum :: forall (t :: * -> *).
-            Foldable t =>
-            forall a. Num a => t a -> a
-      with sum @[] @Integer
-
-However, with :ghc-flag:`-frefinement-level-hole-fits=⟨n⟩` set to e.g. `1`,
-it will additionally offer up a list of refinement hole fits, in this case: ::
-
-  Valid refinement hole fits include
-    foldl1 (_ :: Integer -> Integer -> Integer)
-      with foldl1 @[] @Integer
-      where foldl1 :: forall (t :: * -> *).
-                      Foldable t =>
-                      forall a. (a -> a -> a) -> t a -> a
-    foldr1 (_ :: Integer -> Integer -> Integer)
-      with foldr1 @[] @Integer
-      where foldr1 :: forall (t :: * -> *).
-                      Foldable t =>
-                      forall a. (a -> a -> a) -> t a -> a
-    const (_ :: Integer)
-      with const @Integer @[Integer]
-      where const :: forall a b. a -> b -> a
-    ($) (_ :: [Integer] -> Integer)
-      with ($) @'GHC.Types.LiftedRep @[Integer] @Integer
-      where ($) :: forall a b. (a -> b) -> a -> b
-    fail (_ :: String)
-      with fail @((->) [Integer]) @Integer
-      where fail :: forall (m :: * -> *).
-                    Monad m =>
-                    forall a. String -> m a
-    return (_ :: Integer)
-      with return @((->) [Integer]) @Integer
-      where return :: forall (m :: * -> *). Monad m => forall a. a -> m a
-    (Some refinement hole fits suppressed;
-      use -fmax-refinement-hole-fits=N or -fno-max-refinement-hole-fits)
-
-Which shows that the hole could be replaced with e.g. ``foldl1 _``. While not
-fixing the hole, this can help users understand what options they have.
-
-.. ghc-flag:: -frefinement-level-hole-fits=⟨n⟩
-    :shortdesc: *default: off.* Sets the level of refinement of the
-         refinement hole fits, where level ``n`` means that hole fits
-         of up to ``n`` holes will be considered.
-    :type: dynamic
-    :reverse: -fno-refinement-level-hole-fits
-    :category: verbosity
-
-    :default: off
-
-    The list of valid refinement hole fits is generated by considering
-    hole fits with a varying amount of additional holes. The amount of
-    holes in a refinement can be set by this flag. If the flag is set to 0
-    or not set at all, no valid refinement hole fits will be suggested.
-
-.. ghc-flag:: -fabstract-refinement-hole-fits
-    :shortdesc: *default: off.* Toggles whether refinements where one or more
-         of the holes are abstract are reported.
-    :type: dynamic
-    :reverse: -fno-abstract-refinement-hole-fits
-    :category: verbosity
-
-    :default: off
-
-    Valid list of valid refinement hole fits can often grow large when
-    the refinement level is ``>= 2``, with holes like ``head _ _`` or
-    ``fst _ _``, which are valid refinements, but which are unlikely to be
-    relevant since one or more of the holes are still completely open, in that
-    neither the type nor kind of those holes are constrained by the proposed
-    identifier at all. By default, such holes are not reported. By turning this
-    flag on, such holes are included in the list of valid refinement hole fits.
-
-.. ghc-flag:: -fmax-refinement-hole-fits=⟨n⟩
-    :shortdesc: *default: 6.* Set the maximum number of refinement hole fits
-         for typed holes to display in type error messages.
-    :type: dynamic
-    :reverse: -fno-max-refinement-hole-fits
-    :category: verbosity
-
-    :default: 6
-
-    The list of valid refinement hole fits is limited by displaying up to 6
-    hole fits per hole. The number of hole fits shown can be set by this
-    flag. Turning the limit off with :ghc-flag:`-fno-max-refinement-hole-fits`
-    displays all found hole fits.
-
-.. ghc-flag:: -fshow-hole-matches-of-hole-fits
-    :shortdesc: Toggles whether to show the type of the additional holes
-       in refinement hole fits.
-    :type: dynamic
-    :category: verbosity
-    :reverse: -fno-show-hole-matches-of-hole-fits
-
-    :default: on
-
-    The types of the additional holes in refinement hole fits are displayed
-    in the output, e.g. ``foldl1 (_ :: a -> a -> a)`` is a refinement
-    for the hole ``_ :: [a] -> a``. If this flag is toggled off, the output
-    will display only ``foldl1 _``, which can be used as a direct replacement
-    for the hole, without requiring ``-XScopedTypeVariables``.
-
-
-
-
-Sorting Valid Hole Fits
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-There are currently two ways to sort valid hole fits.
-Sorting can be toggled with :ghc-flag:`-fsort-valid-hole-fits`
-
-.. ghc-flag:: -fno-sort-valid-hole-fits
-    :shortdesc: Disables the sorting of the list of valid hole fits for typed holes
-        in type error messages.
-    :type: dynamic
-    :reverse: -fsort-valid-hole-fits
-    :category: verbosity
-
-    :default: off
-
-    By default the valid hole fits are sorted to show the most relevant
-    hole fits at the top of the list of valid hole fits. This can be
-    toggled off with this flag.
-
-.. ghc-flag:: -fsort-by-size-hole-fits
-    :shortdesc: Sort valid hole fits by size.
-    :type: dynamic
-    :reverse: -fno-sort-by-size-hole-fits
-
-    :default: on
-
-    Sorts by how big the types the quantified type variables in the type of the
-    function would have to be in order to match the type of the hole.
-
-
-.. ghc-flag:: -fsort-by-subsumption-hole-fits
-    :shortdesc: Sort valid hole fits by subsumption.
-    :type: dynamic
-    :reverse: -fno-sort-by-subsumption-hole-fits
-
-    :default: off
-
-    An alternative sort. Sorts by checking which hole fits subsume other
-    hole fits, such that if hole fit a could be used as hole fits for
-    hole fit b, then b appears before a in the output. It is more precise than
-    the default sort, but also a lot slower, since a subsumption check has to be
-    run for each pair of valid hole fits.
-
-.. _partial-type-signatures:
-
-Partial Type Signatures
-=======================
-
-.. extension:: PartialTypeSignatures
-    :shortdesc: Enable partial type signatures.
-
-    :since: 7.10.1
-
-    Type checker will allow inferred types for holes.
-
-A partial type signature is a type signature containing special
-placeholders called *wildcards*. A wildcard is written as an underscore (e.g. "``_``")
-or, if :extension:`NamedWildCards` is enabled, any identifier with a leading
-underscore (e.g. "``_foo``", "``_bar``"). Partial type signatures are to type
-signatures what :ref:`typed-holes` are to expressions. During compilation these
-wildcards or holes will generate an error message that describes which type was
-inferred at the hole's location, and information about the origin of any free
-type variables. GHC reports such error messages by default.
-
-Unlike :ref:`typed-holes`, which make the program incomplete and will
-generate errors when they are evaluated, this needn't be the case for
-holes in type signatures. The type checker is capable (in most cases) of
-type-checking a binding with or without a type signature. A partial type
-signature bridges the gap between the two extremes, the programmer can
-choose which parts of a type to annotate and which to leave over to the
-type-checker to infer.
-
-By default, the type-checker will report an error message for each hole
-in a partial type signature, informing the programmer of the inferred
-type. When the :extension:`PartialTypeSignatures` extension is enabled, the
-type-checker will accept the inferred type for each hole, generating
-warnings instead of errors. Additionally, these warnings can be silenced
-with the :ghc-flag:`-Wno-partial-type-signatures <-Wpartial-type-signatures>`
-flag.
-
-However, because GHC must *infer* the type when part of a type is left
-out, it is unable to use polymorphic recursion. The same restriction
-takes place when the type signature is omitted completely.
-
-.. _pts-syntax:
-
-Syntax
-------
-
-A (partial) type signature has the following form:
-``forall a b .. . (C1, C2, ..) => tau``. It consists of three parts:
-
--  The type variables:
-   ``a b ..``
--  The constraints:
-   ``(C1, C2, ..)``
--  The (mono)type:
-   ``tau``
-
-We distinguish three kinds of wildcards.
-
-.. _type-wildcards:
-
-Type Wildcards
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-Wildcards occurring within the monotype (tau) part of the type signature
-are *type wildcards* ("type" is often omitted as this is the default
-kind of wildcard). Type wildcards can be instantiated to any monotype
-like ``Bool`` or ``Maybe [Bool]``, including functions and higher-kinded
-types like ``(Int -> Bool)`` or ``Maybe``.
-
-::
-
-    not' :: Bool -> _
-    not' x = not x
-    -- Inferred: Bool -> Bool
-
-    maybools :: _
-    maybools = Just [True]
-    -- Inferred: Maybe [Bool]
-
-    just1 :: _ Int
-    just1 = Just 1
-    -- Inferred: Maybe Int
-
-    filterInt :: _ -> _ -> [Int]
-    filterInt = filter -- has type forall a. (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> [a]
-    -- Inferred: (Int -> Bool) -> [Int] -> [Int]
-
-For instance, the first wildcard in the type signature ``not'`` would
-produce the following error message:
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-    Test.hs:4:17: error:
-        • Found type wildcard ‘_’ standing for ‘Bool’
-          To use the inferred type, enable PartialTypeSignatures
-        • In the type signature:
-            not' :: Bool -> _
-        • Relevant bindings include
-            not' :: Bool -> Bool (bound at Test.hs:5:1)
-
-
-When a wildcard is not instantiated to a monotype, it will be
-generalised over, i.e. replaced by a fresh type variable, e.g.
-
-::
-
-    foo :: _ -> _
-    foo x = x
-    -- Inferred: forall t. t -> t
-
-    filter' :: _
-    filter' = filter -- has type forall a. (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> [a]
-    -- Inferred: (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> [a]
-
-.. _named-wildcards:
-
-Named Wildcards
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-.. extension:: NamedWildCards
-    :shortdesc: Enable named wildcards.
-
-    :since: 7.10.1
-
-    Allow naming of wildcards (e.g. ``_x``) in type signatures.
-
-Type wildcards can also be named by giving the underscore an identifier
-as suffix, i.e. ``_a``. These are called *named wildcards*. All
-occurrences of the same named wildcard within one type signature will
-unify to the same type. For example: ::
-
-    f :: _x -> _x
-    f ('c', y) = ('d', error "Urk")
-    -- Inferred: forall t. (Char, t) -> (Char, t)
-
-The named wildcard forces the argument and result types to be the same.
-Lacking a signature, GHC would have inferred
-``forall a b. (Char, a) -> (Char, b)``. A named wildcard can be
-mentioned in constraints, provided it also occurs in the monotype part
-of the type signature to make sure that it unifies with something: ::
-
-    somethingShowable :: Show _x => _x -> _
-    somethingShowable x = show x
-    -- Inferred type: Show a => a -> String
-
-    somethingShowable' :: Show _x => _x -> _
-    somethingShowable' x = show (not x)
-    -- Inferred type: Bool -> String
-
-Besides an extra-constraints wildcard (see
-:ref:`extra-constraints-wildcard`), only named wildcards can occur in
-the constraints, e.g. the ``_x`` in ``Show _x``.
-
-Named wildcards *should not be confused with type variables*. Even
-though syntactically similar, named wildcards can unify with monotypes
-as well as be generalised over (and behave as type variables).
-
-In the first example above, ``_x`` is generalised over (and is
-effectively replaced by a fresh type variable ``a``). In the second
-example, ``_x`` is unified with the ``Bool`` type, and as ``Bool``
-implements the ``Show`` type class, the constraint ``Show Bool`` can be
-simplified away.
-
-By default, GHC (as the Haskell 2010 standard prescribes) parses
-identifiers starting with an underscore in a type as type variables. To
-treat them as named wildcards, the :extension:`NamedWildCards` extension should be
-enabled. The example below demonstrated the effect. ::
-
-    foo :: _a -> _a
-    foo _ = False
-
-Compiling this program without enabling :extension:`NamedWildCards` produces
-the following error message complaining about the type variable ``_a``
-no matching the actual type ``Bool``.
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-    Test.hs:5:9: error:
-        • Couldn't match expected type ‘_a’ with actual type ‘Bool’
-          ‘_a’ is a rigid type variable bound by
-            the type signature for:
-              foo :: forall _a. _a -> _a
-            at Test.hs:4:8
-        • In the expression: False
-          In an equation for ‘foo’: foo _ = False
-        • Relevant bindings include foo :: _a -> _a (bound at Test.hs:5:1)
-
-Compiling this program with :extension:`NamedWildCards` (as well as
-:extension:`PartialTypeSignatures`) enabled produces the following error
-message reporting the inferred type of the named wildcard ``_a``.
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-    Test.hs:4:8: warning: [-Wpartial-type-signatures]
-        • Found type wildcard ‘_a’ standing for ‘Bool’
-        • In the type signature:
-            foo :: _a -> _a
-        • Relevant bindings include
-            foo :: Bool -> Bool (bound at Test.hs:5:1)
-
-
-.. _extra-constraints-wildcard:
-
-Extra-Constraints Wildcard
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-The third kind of wildcard is the *extra-constraints wildcard*. The
-presence of an extra-constraints wildcard indicates that an arbitrary
-number of extra constraints may be inferred during type checking and
-will be added to the type signature. In the example below, the
-extra-constraints wildcard is used to infer three extra constraints.
-
-::
-
-    arbitCs :: _ => a -> String
-    arbitCs x = show (succ x) ++ show (x == x)
-    -- Inferred:
-    --   forall a. (Enum a, Eq a, Show a) => a -> String
-    -- Error:
-    Test.hs:5:12: error:
-        Found constraint wildcard ‘_’ standing for ‘(Show a, Eq a, Enum a)’
-        To use the inferred type, enable PartialTypeSignatures
-        In the type signature:
-          arbitCs :: _ => a -> String
-
-An extra-constraints wildcard shouldn't prevent the programmer from
-already listing the constraints he knows or wants to annotate, e.g.
-
-::
-
-    -- Also a correct partial type signature:
-    arbitCs' :: (Enum a, _) => a -> String
-    arbitCs' x = arbitCs x
-    -- Inferred:
-    --   forall a. (Enum a, Show a, Eq a) => a -> String
-    -- Error:
-    Test.hs:9:22: error:
-        Found constraint wildcard ‘_’ standing for ‘()’
-        To use the inferred type, enable PartialTypeSignatures
-        In the type signature:
-          arbitCs' :: (Enum a, _) => a -> String
-
-An extra-constraints wildcard can also lead to zero extra constraints to
-be inferred, e.g.
-
-::
-
-    noCs :: _ => String
-    noCs = "noCs"
-    -- Inferred: String
-    -- Error:
-    Test.hs:13:9: error:
-        Found constraint wildcard ‘_’ standing for ‘()’
-        To use the inferred type, enable PartialTypeSignatures
-        In the type signature:
-          noCs :: _ => String
-
-As a single extra-constraints wildcard is enough to infer any number of
-constraints, only one is allowed in a type signature and it should come
-last in the list of constraints.
-
-Extra-constraints wildcards cannot be named.
-
-.. _pts-where:
-
-Where can they occur?
----------------------
-
-Partial type signatures are allowed for bindings, pattern and expression
-signatures, except that extra-constraints
-wildcards are not supported in pattern or expression signatures.
-In the following example a wildcard is used in each of the three possible contexts.
-::
-
-    {-# LANGUAGE ScopedTypeVariables #-}
-    foo :: _
-    foo (x :: _) = (x :: _)
-    -- Inferred: forall w_. w_ -> w_
-
-Anonymous and named wildcards *can* occur on the left hand side of a
-type or data instance declaration;
-see :ref:`type-wildcards-lhs`.
-
-Anonymous wildcards are also allowed in visible type applications/ visible kind
-applications (:ref:`visible-type-application`). If you want to specify only the
-second type argument to ``wurble``, then you can say ``wurble @_ @Int`` where
-the first argument is a wildcard.
-
-Standalone ``deriving`` declarations permit the use of a single,
-extra-constraints wildcard, like so: ::
-
-   deriving instance _ => Eq (Foo a)
-
-This denotes a derived ``Eq (Foo a)`` instance where the context is inferred,
-in much the same way that ordinary ``deriving`` clauses do. Any other use of
-wildcards in a standalone ``deriving`` declaration is prohibited.
-
-In all other contexts, type wildcards are disallowed, and a named wildcard is treated
-as an ordinary type variable.  For example: ::
-
-   class C _ where ...          -- Illegal
-   instance Eq (T _)            -- Illegal (currently; would actually make sense)
-   instance Eq _a => Eq (T _a)  -- Perfectly fine, same as  Eq a => Eq (T a)
-
-Partial type signatures can also be used in :ref:`template-haskell`
-splices.
-
--  Declaration splices: partial type signature are fully supported.
-   ::
-
-       {-# LANGUAGE TemplateHaskell, NamedWildCards #-}
-       $( [d| foo :: _ => _a -> _a -> _
-              foo x y = x == y|] )
-
--  Expression splices: anonymous and named wildcards can be used in
-   expression signatures. Extra-constraints wildcards are not supported,
-   just like in regular expression signatures.
-   ::
-
-       {-# LANGUAGE TemplateHaskell, NamedWildCards #-}
-       $( [e| foo = (Just True :: _m _) |] )
-
--  Typed expression splices: the same wildcards as in (untyped)
-   expression splices are supported.
-
--  Pattern splices: anonymous and named wildcards can be used in pattern
-   signatures. Note that :extension:`ScopedTypeVariables` has to be enabled
-   to allow pattern signatures. Extra-constraints wildcards are not supported,
-   just like in regular pattern signatures.
-   ::
-
-       {-# LANGUAGE TemplateHaskell, ScopedTypeVariables #-}
-       foo $( [p| (x :: _) |] ) = x
-
--  Type splices: only anonymous wildcards are supported in type splices.
-   Named and extra-constraints wildcards are not. ::
-
-       {-# LANGUAGE TemplateHaskell #-}
-       foo :: $( [t| _ |] ) -> a
-       foo x = x
-
-.. _custom-errors:
-
-Custom compile-time errors
-==========================
-
-When designing embedded domain specific languages in Haskell, it is useful to
-have something like ``error`` at the type level. In this way, the EDSL designer
-may show a type error that is specific to the DSL, rather than the standard GHC
-type error.
-
-For example, consider a type class that is not intended to be used with
-functions, but the user accidentally used it at a function type, perhaps
-because they missed an argument to some function. Then, instead of getting the
-standard GHC message about a missing instance, it would be nicer to emit a more
-friendly message specific to the EDSL. Similarly, the reduction of a type-level
-function may get stuck due to an error, at which point it would be nice to
-report an EDSL specific error, rather than a generic error about an ambiguous
-type.
-
-To solve this, GHC provides a single type-level function, ::
-
-    type family TypeError (msg :: ErrorMessage) :: k
-
-along with a small type-level language (via :extension:`DataKinds`)
-for constructing pretty-printed error messages, ::
-
-    -- ErrorMessage is intended to be used as a kind
-    data ErrorMessage =
-          Text Symbol                        -- Show this text as is
-        | forall t. ShowType t               -- Pretty print a type
-        | ErrorMessage :<>: ErrorMessage     -- Put two chunks of error message next to each other
-        | ErrorMessage :$$: ErrorMessage     -- Put two chunks of error message above each other
-
-in the :base-ref:`GHC.TypeLits.` module.
-
-For instance, we might use this interface to provide a more useful error
-message for applications of ``show`` on unsaturated functions like this, ::
-
-    {-# LANGUAGE DataKinds #-}
-    {-# LANGUAGE TypeOperators #-}
-    {-# LANGUAGE UndecidableInstances #-}
-
-    import GHC.TypeLits
-
-    instance TypeError (Text "Cannot 'Show' functions." :$$:
-                        Text "Perhaps there is a missing argument?")
-             => Show (a -> b) where
-       showsPrec = error "unreachable"
-
-    main = print negate
-
-Which will produce the following compile-time error,
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-    Test.hs:12:8: error:
-        • Cannot 'Show' functions.
-          Perhaps there is a missing argument?
-        • In the expression: print negate
-          In an equation for ‘main’: main = print negate
-
-
-.. _defer-type-errors:
-
-Deferring type errors to runtime
-================================
-
-While developing, sometimes it is desirable to allow compilation to
-succeed even if there are type errors in the code. Consider the
-following case: ::
-
-    module Main where
-
-    a :: Int
-    a = 'a'
-
-    main = print "b"
-
-Even though ``a`` is ill-typed, it is not used in the end, so if all
-that we're interested in is ``main`` it can be useful to be able to
-ignore the problems in ``a``.
-
-For more motivation and details please refer to the
-:ghc-wiki:`Wiki <defer-errors-to-runtime>` page or the `original
-paper <http://dreixel.net/research/pdf/epdtecp.pdf>`__.
-
-Enabling deferring of type errors
----------------------------------
-
-The flag :ghc-flag:`-fdefer-type-errors` controls whether type errors are
-deferred to runtime. Type errors will still be emitted as warnings, but
-will not prevent compilation. You can use :ghc-flag:`-Wno-deferred-type-errors`
-to suppress these warnings.
-
-This flag implies the :ghc-flag:`-fdefer-typed-holes` and
-:ghc-flag:`-fdefer-out-of-scope-variables` flags, which enables this behaviour
-for `typed holes <#typed-holes>`__ and variables. Should you so wish, it is
-possible to enable :ghc-flag:`-fdefer-type-errors` without enabling
-:ghc-flag:`-fdefer-typed-holes` or :ghc-flag:`-fdefer-out-of-scope-variables`,
-by explicitly specifying :ghc-flag:`-fno-defer-typed-holes
-<-fdefer-typed-holes>` or :ghc-flag:`-fno-defer-out-of-scope-variables
-<-fdefer-out-of-scope-variables>` on the command-line after the
-:ghc-flag:`-fdefer-type-errors` flag.
-
-At runtime, whenever a term containing a type error would need to be
-evaluated, the error is converted into a runtime exception of type
-``TypeError``. Note that type errors are deferred as much as possible
-during runtime, but invalid coercions are never performed, even when
-they would ultimately result in a value of the correct type. For
-example, given the following code: ::
-
-    x :: Int
-    x = 0
-
-    y :: Char
-    y = x
-
-    z :: Int
-    z = y
-
-evaluating ``z`` will result in a runtime ``TypeError``.
-
-Deferred type errors in GHCi
-----------------------------
-
-The flag :ghc-flag:`-fdefer-type-errors` works in GHCi as well, with one
-exception: for "naked" expressions typed at the prompt, type errors
-don't get delayed, so for example: ::
-
-    Prelude> fst (True, 1 == 'a')
-
-    <interactive>:2:12:
-        No instance for (Num Char) arising from the literal `1'
-        Possible fix: add an instance declaration for (Num Char)
-        In the first argument of `(==)', namely `1'
-        In the expression: 1 == 'a'
-        In the first argument of `fst', namely `(True, 1 == 'a')'
-
-Otherwise, in the common case of a simple type error such as typing
-``reverse True`` at the prompt, you would get a warning and then an
-immediately-following type error when the expression is evaluated.
-
-This exception doesn't apply to statements, as the following example
-demonstrates:
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-    Prelude> let x = (True, 1 == 'a')
-
-    <interactive>:3:16: Warning:
-        No instance for (Num Char) arising from the literal `1'
-        Possible fix: add an instance declaration for (Num Char)
-        In the first argument of `(==)', namely `1'
-        In the expression: 1 == 'a'
-        In the expression: (True, 1 == 'a')
-    Prelude> fst x
-    True
-
-Limitations of deferred type errors
------------------------------------
-The errors that can be deferred are:
-
-- Out of scope term variables
-- Equality constraints; e.g. `ord True` gives rise to an insoluble equality constraint `Char ~ Bool`, which can be deferred.
-- Type-class and implicit-parameter constraints
-
-All other type errors are reported immediately, and cannot be deferred; for
-example, an ill-kinded type signature, an instance declaration that is
-non-terminating or ill-formed, a type-family instance that does not
-obey the declared injectivity constraints, etc etc.
-
-In a few cases, even equality constraints cannot be deferred.  Specifically:
-
-- Kind-equalities cannot be deferred, e.g. ::
-
-    f :: Int Bool -> Char
-
-  This type signature contains a kind error which cannot be deferred.
-
-- Type equalities under a forall cannot be deferred (c.f. #14605).
-
-.. _template-haskell:
-
-Template Haskell
-================
-
-Template Haskell allows you to do compile-time meta-programming in
-Haskell. The background to the main technical innovations is discussed
-in "`Template Meta-programming for
-Haskell <http://research.microsoft.com/~simonpj/papers/meta-haskell/>`__"
-(Proc Haskell Workshop 2002).
-
-The `Template Haskell <http://www.haskell.org/haskellwiki/Template_Haskell>`__
-page on the GHC Wiki has a wealth of information. You may also consult the
-:th-ref:`Haddock reference documentation <Language.Haskell.TH.>`.
-Many changes to the original
-design are described in `Notes on Template Haskell version
-2 <https://www.haskell.org/ghc/docs/papers/th2.ps>`__.
-Not all of these changes are in GHC, however.
-
-The first example from that paper is set out below (:ref:`th-example`)
-as a worked example to help get you started.
-
-The documentation here describes the realisation of Template Haskell in
-GHC. It is not detailed enough to understand Template Haskell; see the
-`Wiki page <http://haskell.org/haskellwiki/Template_Haskell>`__.
-
-.. _th-syntax:
-
-Syntax
-------
-
-.. extension:: TemplateHaskell
-    :shortdesc: Enable Template Haskell.
-
-    :implies: :extension:`TemplateHaskellQuotes`
-    :since: 6.0. Typed splices introduced in GHC 7.8.1.
-
-    Enable Template Haskell's splice and quotation syntax.
-
-.. extension:: TemplateHaskellQuotes
-    :shortdesc: Enable quotation subset of
-        :ref:`Template Haskell <template-haskell>`.
-
-    :since: 8.0.1
-
-    Enable only Template Haskell's quotation syntax.
-
-Template Haskell has the following new syntactic constructions. You need to use
-the extension :extension:`TemplateHaskell` to switch these syntactic extensions on.
-Alternatively, the :extension:`TemplateHaskellQuotes` extension can be used to
-enable the quotation subset of Template Haskell (i.e. without splice syntax).
-The :extension:`TemplateHaskellQuotes` extension is considered safe under
-:ref:`safe-haskell` while :extension:`TemplateHaskell` is not.
-
--  A splice is written ``$x``, where ``x`` is an arbitrary expression.
-   There must be no space between the "$" and the expression.
-   This use of "$" overrides its meaning as an infix operator, just as "M.x"
-   overrides the meaning of "." as an infix operator. If you want the
-   infix operator, put spaces around it.
-
-   A top-level splice can occur in place of
-
-   -  an expression; the spliced expression must have type ``Q Exp``
-
-   -  a pattern; the spliced pattern must have type ``Q Pat``
-
-   -  a type; the spliced expression must have type ``Q Type``
-
-   -  a list of declarations at top level; the spliced expression must
-      have type ``Q [Dec]``
-
-   Inside a splice you can only call functions defined in imported
-   modules, not functions defined elsewhere in the same module. Note
-   that declaration splices are not allowed anywhere except at top level
-   (outside any other declarations).
-
-   The ``Q`` monad is a monad defined in ``Language.Haskell.TH.Syntax`` which
-   supports several useful operations during code generation such as reporting
-   errors or looking up identifiers in the environment.
-
--  A expression quotation is written in Oxford brackets, thus:
-
-   -  ``[| ... |]``, or ``[e| ... |]``, where the "..." is an
-      expression; the quotation has type ``Quote m => m Exp``.
-
-   -  ``[d| ... |]``, where the "..." is a list of top-level
-      declarations; the quotation has type ``Quote m => m [Dec]``.
-
-   -  ``[t| ... |]``, where the "..." is a type; the quotation has type
-      ``Quote m => m Type``.
-
-   -  ``[p| ... |]``, where the "..." is a pattern; the quotation has
-      type ``Quote m => m Pat``.
-
-   The ``Quote`` type class is the minimal interface necessary to implement
-   the desugaring of quotations. The ``Q`` monad is an instance of ``Quote`` but
-   contains many more operations which are not needed for defining quotations.
-
-   See :ref:`pts-where` for using partial type signatures in quotations.
-
--  Splices can be nested inside quotation brackets. For example the fragment
-   representing ``1 + 2`` can be constructed using nested splices::
-
-    oneC, twoC, plusC  :: Quote m => m Exp
-    oneC = [| 1 |]
-
-    twoC = [| 2 |]
-
-    plusC = [| $oneC + $twoC |]
-
-- The precise type of a quotation depends on the types of the nested splices inside it::
-
-      -- Add a redundant constraint to demonstrate that constraints on the
-      -- monad used to build the representation are propagated when using nested
-      -- splices.
-      f :: (Quote m, C m) => m Exp
-      f = [| 5 | ]
-
-      -- f is used in a nested splice so the constraint on f, namely C, is propagated
-      -- to a constraint on the whole representation.
-      g :: (Quote m, C m) => m Exp
-      g = [| $f + $f |]
-
-   Remember, a top-level splice still requires its argument to be of type ``Q Exp``.
-   So then splicing in ``g`` will cause ``m`` to be instantiated to ``Q``::
-
-    h :: Int
-    h = $(g) -- m ~ Q
-
-
--  A *typed* expression splice is written ``$$x``, where ``x`` is
-   is an arbitrary expression.
-
-   A top-level typed expression splice can occur in place of an expression; the
-   spliced expression must have type ``Q (TExp a)``
-
--  A *typed* expression quotation is written as ``[|| ... ||]``, or
-   ``[e|| ... ||]``, where the "..." is an expression; if the "..."
-   expression has type ``a``, then the quotation has type
-   ``Quote m => m (TExp a)``.
-
-   Values of type ``TExp a`` may be converted to values of type ``Exp``
-   using the function ``unType :: TExp a -> Exp``.
-
--  A quasi-quotation can appear in a pattern, type, expression, or
-   declaration context and is also written in Oxford brackets:
-
-   -  ``[varid| ... |]``, where the "..." is an arbitrary string; a full
-      description of the quasi-quotation facility is given in
-      :ref:`th-quasiquotation`.
-
--  A name can be quoted with either one or two prefix single quotes:
-
-   -  ``'f`` has type ``Name``, and names the function ``f``. Similarly
-      ``'C`` has type ``Name`` and names the data constructor ``C``. In
-      general ``'``\ ⟨thing⟩ interprets ⟨thing⟩ in an expression
-      context.
-
-      A name whose second character is a single quote (sadly) cannot be
-      quoted in this way, because it will be parsed instead as a quoted
-      character. For example, if the function is called ``f'7`` (which
-      is a legal Haskell identifier), an attempt to quote it as ``'f'7``
-      would be parsed as the character literal ``'f'`` followed by the
-      numeric literal ``7``. There is no current escape mechanism in
-      this (unusual) situation.
-
-   -  ``''T`` has type ``Name``, and names the type constructor ``T``.
-      That is, ``''``\ ⟨thing⟩ interprets ⟨thing⟩ in a type context.
-
-   These ``Names`` can be used to construct Template Haskell
-   expressions, patterns, declarations etc. They may also be given as an
-   argument to the ``reify`` function.
-
--  It is possible for a splice to expand to an expression that contain
-   names which are not in scope at the site of the splice. As an
-   example, consider the following code: ::
-
-       module Bar where
-
-       import Language.Haskell.TH
-
-       add1 :: Quote m => Int -> m Exp
-       add1 x = [| x + 1 |]
-
-   Now consider a splice using ``add1`` in a separate
-   module: ::
-
-       module Foo where
-
-       import Bar
-
-       two :: Int
-       two = $(add1 1)
-
-   Template Haskell cannot know what the argument to ``add1`` will be at the
-   function's definition site, so a lifting mechanism is used to promote
-   ``x`` into a value of type ``Quote m => m Exp``. This functionality is exposed to the
-   user as the ``Lift`` typeclass in the ``Language.Haskell.TH.Syntax``
-   module. If a type has a ``Lift`` instance, then any of its values can be
-   lifted to a Template Haskell expression: ::
-
-       class Lift t where
-           lift :: Quote m => t -> m Exp
-           liftTyped :: Quote m => t -> m (TExp t)
-
-   In general, if GHC sees an expression within Oxford brackets (e.g., ``[|
-   foo bar |]``, then GHC looks up each name within the brackets. If a name
-   is global (e.g., suppose ``foo`` comes from an import or a top-level
-   declaration), then the fully qualified name is used directly in the
-   quotation. If the name is local (e.g., suppose ``bar`` is bound locally in
-   the function definition ``mkFoo bar = [| foo bar |]``), then GHC uses
-   ``lift`` on it (so GHC pretends ``[| foo bar |]`` actually contains ``[|
-   foo $(lift bar) |]``). Local names, which are not in scope at splice
-   locations, are actually evaluated when the quotation is processed.
-
-   The ``template-haskell`` library provides ``Lift`` instances for many
-   common data types. Furthermore, it is possible to derive ``Lift``
-   instances automatically by using the :extension:`DeriveLift` language extension.
-   See :ref:`deriving-lift` for more information.
-
--  You may omit the ``$(...)`` in a top-level declaration splice. Simply
-   writing an expression (rather than a declaration) implies a splice.
-   For example, you can write ::
-
-       module Foo where
-       import Bar
-
-       f x = x
-
-       $(deriveStuff 'f)   -- Uses the $(...) notation
-
-       g y = y+1
-
-       deriveStuff 'g      -- Omits the $(...)
-
-       h z = z-1
-
-   This abbreviation makes top-level declaration slices quieter and less
-   intimidating.
-
--  Pattern splices introduce variable binders but scoping of variables in
-   expressions inside the pattern's scope is only checked when a splice is
-   run.  Note that pattern splices that occur outside of any quotation
-   brackets are run at compile time.  Pattern splices occurring inside a
-   quotation bracket are *not* run at compile time; they are run when the
-   bracket is spliced in, sometime later.  For example, ::
-
-       mkPat :: Quote m => m Pat
-       mkPat = [p| (x, y) |]
-
-       -- in another module:
-       foo :: (Char, String) -> String
-       foo $(mkPat) = x : z
-
-       bar :: Quote m => m Exp
-       bar = [| \ $(mkPat) -> x : w |]
-
-   will fail with ``z`` being out of scope in the definition of ``foo`` but it
-   will *not* fail with ``w`` being out of scope in the definition of ``bar``.
-   That will only happen when ``bar`` is spliced.
-
--  A pattern quasiquoter *may* generate binders that scope over the
-   right-hand side of a definition because these binders are in scope
-   lexically. For example, given a quasiquoter ``haskell`` that parses
-   Haskell, in the following code, the ``y`` in the right-hand side of
-   ``f`` refers to the ``y`` bound by the ``haskell`` pattern
-   quasiquoter, *not* the top-level ``y = 7``. ::
-
-       y :: Int
-       y = 7
-
-       f :: Int -> Int -> Int
-       f n = \ [haskell|y|] -> y+n
-
--  Top-level declaration splices break up a source file into
-   *declaration groups*. A *declaration group* is the group of
-   declarations created by a top-level declaration splice, plus those
-   following it, down to but not including the next top-level
-   declaration splice. N.B. only top-level splices delimit declaration
-   groups, not expression splices. The first declaration group in a module
-   includes all top-level definitions down to but not including the first
-   top-level declaration splice.
-
-   Each declaration group is mutually recursive only within the group.
-   Declaration groups can refer to definitions within previous groups,
-   but not later ones.
-
-   Accordingly, the type environment seen by ``reify`` includes all the
-   top-level declarations up to the end of the immediately preceding
-   declaration group, but no more.
-
-   Unlike normal declaration splices, declaration quasiquoters do not
-   cause a break. These quasiquoters are expanded before the rest of the
-   declaration group is processed, and the declarations they generate
-   are merged into the surrounding declaration group. Consequently, the
-   type environment seen by ``reify`` from a declaration quasiquoter
-   will not include anything from the quasiquoter's declaration group.
-
-   Concretely, consider the following code ::
-
-       module M where
-
-       import ...
-
-       f x = x
-
-       $(th1 4)
-
-       h y = k y y $(blah1)
-
-       [qq|blah|]
-
-       k x y z = x + y + z
-
-       $(th2 10)
-
-       w z = $(blah2)
-
-   In this example, a ``reify`` inside...
-
-   1. The splice ``$(th1 ...)`` would see the definition of ``f`` - the
-      splice is top-level and thus all definitions in the previous
-      declaration group are visible (that is, all definitions in the module
-      up-to, but not including, the splice itself).
-
-   2. The splice ``$(blah1)`` cannot refer to the function ``w`` - ``w`` is
-      part of a later declaration group, and thus invisible, similarly,
-      ``$(blah1)`` cannot see the definition of ``h`` (since it is part of
-      the same declaration group as ``$(blah1)``. However, the splice
-      ``$(blah1)`` can see the definition of ``f`` (since it is in the
-      immediately preceding declaration group).
-
-   3. The splice ``$(th2 ...)`` would see the definition of ``f``, all the
-      bindings created by ``$(th1 ...)``, the definition of ``h`` and all
-      bindings created by ``[qq|blah|]`` (they are all in previous
-      declaration groups).
-
-   4. The body of ``h`` *can* refer to the function ``k`` appearing on the
-      other side of the declaration quasiquoter, as quasiquoters do not
-      cause a declaration group to be broken up.
-
-   5. The ``qq`` quasiquoter would be able to see the definition of ``f``
-      from the preceding declaration group, but not the definitions of
-      ``h`` or ``k``, or any definitions from subsequent declaration
-      groups.
-
-   6. The splice ``$(blah2)`` would see the same definitions as the splice
-      ``$(th2 ...)`` (but *not* any bindings it creates).
-
-   Note that since an expression splice is unable to refer to declarations
-   in the same declaration group, we can introduce a top-level (empty)
-   splice to break up the declaration group ::
-
-       module M where
-
-       data D = C1 | C2
-
-       f1 = $(th1 ...)
-
-       $(return [])
-
-       f2 = $(th2 ...)
-
-   Here
-
-   1. The splice ``$(th1 ...)`` *cannot* refer to ``D`` - it is in the same
-      declaration group.
-   2. The declaration group containing ``D`` is terminated by the empty
-      top-level declaration splice ``$(return [])`` (recall, ``Q`` is a
-      Monad, so we may simply ``return`` the empty list of declarations).
-   3. Since the declaration group containing ``D`` is in the previous
-      declaration group, the splice ``$(th2 ...)`` *can* refer to ``D``.
-
--  Expression quotations accept most Haskell language constructs.
-   However, there are some GHC-specific extensions which expression
-   quotations currently do not support, including
-
-   -  Recursive ``do``-statements (see :ghc-ticket:`1262`)
-
-   -  Type holes in typed splices (see :ghc-ticket:`10945` and
-      :ghc-ticket:`10946`)
-
-(Compared to the original paper, there are many differences of detail.
-The syntax for a declaration splice uses "``$``" not "``splice``". The type of
-the enclosed expression must be ``Quote m => m [Dec]``, not ``[Q Dec]``. Typed expression
-splices and quotations are supported.)
-
-.. ghc-flag:: -fenable-th-splice-warnings
-    :shortdesc: Generate warnings for Template Haskell splices
-    :type: dynamic
-    :reverse: -fno-enable-th-splices
-    :category: warnings
-
-    Template Haskell splices won't be checked for warnings, because the code
-    causing the warning might originate from a third-party library and possibly
-    was not written by the user. If you want to have warnings for splices
-    anyway, pass :ghc-flag:`-fenable-th-splice-warnings`.
-
-.. _th-usage:
-
-Using Template Haskell
-----------------------
-
--  The data types and monadic constructor functions for Template Haskell
-   are in the library ``Language.Haskell.TH.Syntax``.
-
--  You can only run a function at compile time if it is imported from
-   another module. That is, you can't define a function in a module, and
-   call it from within a splice in the same module. (It would make sense
-   to do so, but it's hard to implement.)
-
--  You can only run a function at compile time if it is imported from
-   another module *that is not part of a mutually-recursive group of
-   modules that includes the module currently being compiled*.
-   Furthermore, all of the modules of the mutually-recursive group must
-   be reachable by non-SOURCE imports from the module where the splice
-   is to be run.
-
-   For example, when compiling module A, you can only run Template
-   Haskell functions imported from B if B does not import A (directly or
-   indirectly). The reason should be clear: to run B we must compile and
-   run A, but we are currently type-checking A.
-
--  If you are building GHC from source, you need at least a stage-2
-   bootstrap compiler to run Template Haskell splices and quasi-quotes.
-   A stage-1 compiler will only accept regular quotes of Haskell.
-   Reason: TH splices and quasi-quotes compile and run a program, and
-   then looks at the result. So it's important that the program it
-   compiles produces results whose representations are identical to
-   those of the compiler itself.
-
-Template Haskell works in any mode (:ghc-flag:`--make`,
-:ghc-flag:`--interactive`, or file-at-a-time). There used to be a restriction to
-the former two, but that restriction has been lifted.
-
-.. _th-view-gen-code:
-
-Viewing Template Haskell generated code
----------------------------------------
-
-The flag :ghc-flag:`-ddump-splices` shows the expansion of all top-level
-declaration splices, both typed and untyped, as they happen. As with all
-dump flags, the default is for this output to be sent to stdout. For a
-non-trivial program, you may be interested in combining this with the
-:ghc-flag:`-ddump-to-file` flag (see :ref:`dumping-output`. For each file using
-Template Haskell, this will show the output in a ``.dump-splices`` file.
-
-The flag :ghc-flag:`-dth-dec-file` dumps the expansions of all top-level
-TH declaration splices, both typed and untyped, in the file :file:`M.th.hs`
-for each module `M` being compiled. Note that other types of
-splices (expressions, types, and patterns) are not shown. Application
-developers can check this into their repository so that they can grep for
-identifiers that were defined in Template Haskell. This is similar to using
-:ghc-flag:`-ddump-to-file` with :ghc-flag:`-ddump-splices` but it always
-generates a file instead of being coupled to :ghc-flag:`-ddump-to-file`. The
-format is also different: it does not show code from the original file, instead
-it only shows generated code and has a comment for the splice location of the
-original file.
-
-Below is a sample output of :ghc-flag:`-ddump-splices` ::
-
-    TH_pragma.hs:(6,4)-(8,26): Splicing declarations
-      [d| foo :: Int -> Int
-          foo x = x + 1 |]
-    ======>
-      foo :: Int -> Int
-      foo x = (x + 1)
-
-Below is the output of the same sample using :ghc-flag:`-dth-dec-file` ::
-
-    -- TH_pragma.hs:(6,4)-(8,26): Splicing declarations
-    foo :: Int -> Int
-    foo x = (x + 1)
-
-.. _th-example:
-
-A Template Haskell Worked Example
----------------------------------
-
-To help you get over the confidence barrier, try out this skeletal
-worked example. First cut and paste the two modules below into :file:`Main.hs`
-and :file:`Printf.hs`:
-
-::
-
-
-    {- Main.hs -}
-    module Main where
-
-    -- Import our template "pr"
-    import Printf ( pr )
-
-    -- The splice operator $ takes the Haskell source code
-    -- generated at compile time by "pr" and splices it into
-    -- the argument of "putStrLn".
-    main = putStrLn ( $(pr "Hello") )
-
-
-    {- Printf.hs -}
-    module Printf where
-
-    -- Skeletal printf from the paper.
-    -- It needs to be in a separate module to the one where
-    -- you intend to use it.
-
-    -- Import some Template Haskell syntax
-    import Language.Haskell.TH
-
-    -- Describe a format string
-    data Format = D | S | L String
-
-    -- Parse a format string.  This is left largely to you
-    -- as we are here interested in building our first ever
-    -- Template Haskell program and not in building printf.
-    parse :: String -> [Format]
-    parse s   = [ L s ]
-
-    -- Generate Haskell source code from a parsed representation
-    -- of the format string.  This code will be spliced into
-    -- the module which calls "pr", at compile time.
-    gen :: Quote m => [Format] -> m Exp
-    gen [D]   = [| \n -> show n |]
-    gen [S]   = [| \s -> s |]
-    gen [L s] = stringE s
-
-    -- Here we generate the Haskell code for the splice
-    -- from an input format string.
-    pr :: Quote m => String -> m Exp
-    pr s = gen (parse s)
-
-Now run the compiler,
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-    $ ghc --make -XTemplateHaskell main.hs -o main
-
-Run :file:`main` and here is your output:
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-    $ ./main
-    Hello
-
-.. _th-profiling:
-
-Using Template Haskell with Profiling
--------------------------------------
-
-.. index::
-   single: profiling; with Template Haskell
-
-Template Haskell relies on GHC's built-in bytecode compiler and
-interpreter to run the splice expressions. The bytecode interpreter runs
-the compiled expression on top of the same runtime on which GHC itself
-is running; this means that the compiled code referred to by the
-interpreted expression must be compatible with this runtime, and in
-particular this means that object code that is compiled for profiling
-*cannot* be loaded and used by a splice expression, because profiled
-object code is only compatible with the profiling version of the
-runtime.
-
-This causes difficulties if you have a multi-module program containing
-Template Haskell code and you need to compile it for profiling, because
-GHC cannot load the profiled object code and use it when executing the
-splices.
-
-Fortunately GHC provides two workarounds.
-
-The first option is to compile the program twice:
-
-1. Compile the program or library first the normal way, without
-   :ghc-flag:`-prof`.
-
-2. Then compile it again with :ghc-flag:`-prof`, and additionally use ``-osuf
-   p_o`` to name the object files differently (you can choose any suffix that
-   isn't the normal object suffix here). GHC will automatically load the object
-   files built in the first step when executing splice expressions. If you omit
-   the :ghc-flag:`-osuf ⟨suffix⟩` flag when building with :ghc-flag:`-prof` and
-   Template Haskell is used, GHC will emit an error message.
-
-   .. index::
-      single : -osuf; using with profiling
-
-The second option is to add the flag :ghc-flag:`-fexternal-interpreter` (see
-:ref:`external-interpreter`), which runs the interpreter in a separate
-process, wherein it can load and run the profiled code directly.
-There's no need to compile the code twice, just add
-:ghc-flag:`-fexternal-interpreter` and it should just work.  (this option is
-experimental in GHC 8.0.x, but it may become the default in future
-releases).
-
-.. _th-quasiquotation:
-
-Template Haskell Quasi-quotation
---------------------------------
-
-.. extension:: QuasiQuotes
-    :shortdesc: Enable quasiquotation.
-
-    :since: 6.10.1
-
-    Enable Template Haskell Quasi-quotation syntax.
-
-Quasi-quotation allows patterns and expressions to be written using
-programmer-defined concrete syntax; the motivation behind the extension
-and several examples are documented in "`Why It's Nice to be Quoted:
-Quasiquoting for
-Haskell <http://www.cs.tufts.edu/comp/150FP/archive/geoff-mainland/quasiquoting.pdf>`__"
-(Proc Haskell Workshop 2007). The example below shows how to write a
-quasiquoter for a simple expression language.
-
-Here are the salient features
-
--  A quasi-quote has the form ``[quoter| string |]``.
-
-   -  The ⟨quoter⟩ must be the name of an imported quoter, either
-      qualified or unqualified; it cannot be an arbitrary expression.
-
-   -  The ⟨quoter⟩ cannot be "``e``", "``t``", "``d``", or "``p``",
-      since those overlap with Template Haskell quotations.
-
-   -  There must be no spaces in the token ``[quoter|``.
-
-   -  The quoted ⟨string⟩ can be arbitrary, and may contain newlines.
-
-   -  The quoted ⟨string⟩ finishes at the first occurrence of the
-      two-character sequence ``"|]"``. Absolutely no escaping is
-      performed. If you want to embed that character sequence in the
-      string, you must invent your own escape convention (such as, say,
-      using the string ``"|~]"`` instead), and make your quoter function
-      interpret ``"|~]"`` as ``"|]"``. One way to implement this is to
-      compose your quoter with a pre-processing pass to perform your
-      escape conversion. See the discussion in :ghc-ticket:`5348` for details.
-
--  A quasiquote may appear in place of
-
-   -  An expression
-
-   -  A pattern
-
-   -  A type
-
-   -  A top-level declaration
-
-   (Only the first two are described in the paper.)
-
--  A quoter is a value of type
-   ``Language.Haskell.TH.Quote.QuasiQuoter``, which is defined thus: ::
-
-       data QuasiQuoter = QuasiQuoter { quoteExp  :: String -> Q Exp,
-                                        quotePat  :: String -> Q Pat,
-                                        quoteType :: String -> Q Type,
-                                        quoteDec  :: String -> Q [Dec] }
-
-   That is, a quoter is a tuple of four parsers, one for each of the
-   contexts in which a quasi-quote can occur.
-
--  A quasi-quote is expanded by applying the appropriate parser to the
-   string enclosed by the Oxford brackets. The context of the
-   quasi-quote (expression, pattern, type, declaration) determines which
-   of the parsers is called.
-
--  Unlike normal declaration splices of the form ``$(...)``, declaration
-   quasi-quotes do not cause a declaration group break. See
-   :ref:`th-syntax` for more information.
-
-.. _quasi-quotes-list-comprehension-ambiguity:
-
-.. warning::
-
-    .. index::
-        single: quasi-quotes; ambiguity with list comprehensions
-        single: list comprehensions; ambiguity with quasi-quotes
-
-    :extension:`QuasiQuotes` introduces an unfortunate ambiguity with list
-    comprehension syntax. Consider the following, ::
-
-        let x = [v| v <- [0..10]]
-
-    Without :extension:`QuasiQuotes` this is parsed as a list comprehension.
-    With :extension:`QuasiQuotes` this is parsed as a quasi-quote; however,
-    this parse will fail due to the lack of a closing ``|]``. See
-    :ghc-ticket:`11679`.
-
-The example below shows quasi-quotation in action. The quoter ``expr``
-is bound to a value of type ``QuasiQuoter`` defined in module ``Expr``.
-The example makes use of an antiquoted variable ``n``, indicated by the
-syntax ``'int:n`` (this syntax for anti-quotation was defined by the
-parser's author, *not* by GHC). This binds ``n`` to the integer value
-argument of the constructor ``IntExpr`` when pattern matching. Please
-see the referenced paper for further details regarding anti-quotation as
-well as the description of a technique that uses SYB to leverage a
-single parser of type ``String -> a`` to generate both an expression
-parser that returns a value of type ``Q Exp`` and a pattern parser that
-returns a value of type ``Q Pat``.
-
-Quasiquoters must obey the same stage restrictions as Template Haskell,
-e.g., in the example, ``expr`` cannot be defined in ``Main.hs`` where it
-is used, but must be imported.
-
-::
-
-    {- ------------- file Main.hs --------------- -}
-    module Main where
-
-    import Expr
-
-    main :: IO ()
-    main = do { print $ eval [expr|1 + 2|]
-              ; case IntExpr 1 of
-                  { [expr|'int:n|] -> print n
-                  ;  _              -> return ()
-                  }
-              }
-
-
-    {- ------------- file Expr.hs --------------- -}
-    module Expr where
-
-    import qualified Language.Haskell.TH as TH
-    import Language.Haskell.TH.Quote
-
-    data Expr  =  IntExpr Integer
-               |  AntiIntExpr String
-               |  BinopExpr BinOp Expr Expr
-               |  AntiExpr String
-        deriving(Show, Typeable, Data)
-
-    data BinOp  =  AddOp
-                |  SubOp
-                |  MulOp
-                |  DivOp
-        deriving(Show, Typeable, Data)
-
-    eval :: Expr -> Integer
-    eval (IntExpr n)        = n
-    eval (BinopExpr op x y) = (opToFun op) (eval x) (eval y)
-      where
-        opToFun AddOp = (+)
-        opToFun SubOp = (-)
-        opToFun MulOp = (*)
-        opToFun DivOp = div
-
-    expr = QuasiQuoter { quoteExp = parseExprExp, quotePat =  parseExprPat }
-
-    -- Parse an Expr, returning its representation as
-    -- either a Q Exp or a Q Pat. See the referenced paper
-    -- for how to use SYB to do this by writing a single
-    -- parser of type String -> Expr instead of two
-    -- separate parsers.
-
-    parseExprExp :: String -> Q Exp
-    parseExprExp ...
-
-    parseExprPat :: String -> Q Pat
-    parseExprPat ...
-
-Now run the compiler:
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-    $ ghc --make -XQuasiQuotes Main.hs -o main
-
-Run "main" and here is your output:
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-    $ ./main
-    3
-    1
-
-.. _arrow-notation:
-
-Arrow notation
-==============
-
-.. extension:: Arrows
-    :shortdesc: Enable arrow notation extension
-
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Enable arrow notation.
-
-Arrows are a generalisation of monads introduced by John Hughes. For
-more details, see
-
--  “Generalising Monads to Arrows”, John Hughes, in Science of Computer
-   Programming 37, pp. 67–111, May 2000. The paper that introduced arrows:
-   a friendly introduction, motivated with programming examples.
-
--  “\ `A New Notation for
-   Arrows <http://www.soi.city.ac.uk/~ross/papers/notation.html>`__\ ”,
-   Ross Paterson, in ICFP, Sep 2001. Introduced the notation described
-   here.
-
--  “\ `Arrows and
-   Computation <http://www.soi.city.ac.uk/~ross/papers/fop.html>`__\ ”,
-   Ross Paterson, in The Fun of Programming, Palgrave, 2003.
-
--  “\ `Programming with
-   Arrows <http://www.cse.chalmers.se/~rjmh/afp-arrows.pdf>`__\ ”, John
-   Hughes, in 5th International Summer School on Advanced Functional
-   Programming, Lecture Notes in Computer Science vol. 3622, Springer,
-   2004. This paper includes another introduction to the notation, with
-   practical examples.
-
--  “\ `Type and Translation Rules for Arrow Notation in
-   GHC <http://www.haskell.org/ghc/docs/papers/arrow-rules.pdf>`__\ ”,
-   Ross Paterson and Simon Peyton Jones, September 16, 2004. A terse
-   enumeration of the formal rules used (extracted from comments in the
-   source code).
-
--  The arrows web page at
-   ``http://www.haskell.org/arrows/`` <http://www.haskell.org/arrows/>`__.
-
-With the :extension:`Arrows` extension, GHC supports the arrow notation described in
-the second of these papers, translating it using combinators from the
-:base-ref:`Control.Arrow.` module.
-What follows is a brief introduction to the notation; it won't make much
-sense unless you've read Hughes's paper.
-
-The extension adds a new kind of expression for defining arrows:
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-    exp10 ::= ...
-           |  proc apat -> cmd
-
-where ``proc`` is a new keyword. The variables of the pattern are bound
-in the body of the ``proc``-expression, which is a new sort of thing
-called a command. The syntax of commands is as follows:
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-    cmd   ::= exp10 -<  exp
-           |  exp10 -<< exp
-           |  cmd0
-
-with ⟨cmd⟩\ :sup:`0` up to ⟨cmd⟩\ :sup:`9` defined using infix operators
-as for expressions, and
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-    cmd10 ::= \ apat ... apat -> cmd
-           |  let decls in cmd
-           |  if exp then cmd else cmd
-           |  case exp of { calts }
-           |  do { cstmt ; ... cstmt ; cmd }
-           |  fcmd
-
-    fcmd  ::= fcmd aexp
-           |  ( cmd )
-           |  (| aexp cmd ... cmd |)
-
-    cstmt ::= let decls
-           |  pat <- cmd
-           |  rec { cstmt ; ... cstmt [;] }
-           |  cmd
-
-where ⟨calts⟩ are like ⟨alts⟩ except that the bodies are commands
-instead of expressions.
-
-Commands produce values, but (like monadic computations) may yield more
-than one value, or none, and may do other things as well. For the most
-part, familiarity with monadic notation is a good guide to using
-commands. However the values of expressions, even monadic ones, are
-determined by the values of the variables they contain; this is not
-necessarily the case for commands.
-
-A simple example of the new notation is the expression ::
-
-    proc x -> f -< x+1
-
-We call this a procedure or arrow abstraction. As with a lambda
-expression, the variable ``x`` is a new variable bound within the
-``proc``-expression. It refers to the input to the arrow. In the above
-example, ``-<`` is not an identifier but a new reserved symbol used for
-building commands from an expression of arrow type and an expression to
-be fed as input to that arrow. (The weird look will make more sense
-later.) It may be read as analogue of application for arrows. The above
-example is equivalent to the Haskell expression ::
-
-    arr (\ x -> x+1) >>> f
-
-That would make no sense if the expression to the left of ``-<``
-involves the bound variable ``x``. More generally, the expression to the
-left of ``-<`` may not involve any local variable, i.e. a variable bound
-in the current arrow abstraction. For such a situation there is a
-variant ``-<<``, as in ::
-
-    proc x -> f x -<< x+1
-
-which is equivalent to ::
-
-    arr (\ x -> (f x, x+1)) >>> app
-
-so in this case the arrow must belong to the ``ArrowApply`` class. Such
-an arrow is equivalent to a monad, so if you're using this form you may
-find a monadic formulation more convenient.
-
-do-notation for commands
-------------------------
-
-Another form of command is a form of ``do``-notation. For example, you
-can write ::
-
-    proc x -> do
-            y <- f -< x+1
-            g -< 2*y
-            let z = x+y
-            t <- h -< x*z
-            returnA -< t+z
-
-You can read this much like ordinary ``do``-notation, but with commands
-in place of monadic expressions. The first line sends the value of
-``x+1`` as an input to the arrow ``f``, and matches its output against
-``y``. In the next line, the output is discarded. The arrow ``returnA``
-is defined in the :base-ref:`Control.Arrow.` module as ``arr id``. The above
-example is treated as an abbreviation for ::
-
-    arr (\ x -> (x, x)) >>>
-            first (arr (\ x -> x+1) >>> f) >>>
-            arr (\ (y, x) -> (y, (x, y))) >>>
-            first (arr (\ y -> 2*y) >>> g) >>>
-            arr snd >>>
-            arr (\ (x, y) -> let z = x+y in ((x, z), z)) >>>
-            first (arr (\ (x, z) -> x*z) >>> h) >>>
-            arr (\ (t, z) -> t+z) >>>
-            returnA
-
-Note that variables not used later in the composition are projected out.
-After simplification using rewrite rules (see :ref:`rewrite-rules`)
-defined in the :base-ref:`Control.Arrow.` module, this reduces to ::
-
-    arr (\ x -> (x+1, x)) >>>
-            first f >>>
-            arr (\ (y, x) -> (2*y, (x, y))) >>>
-            first g >>>
-            arr (\ (_, (x, y)) -> let z = x+y in (x*z, z)) >>>
-            first h >>>
-            arr (\ (t, z) -> t+z)
-
-which is what you might have written by hand. With arrow notation, GHC
-keeps track of all those tuples of variables for you.
-
-Note that although the above translation suggests that ``let``-bound
-variables like ``z`` must be monomorphic, the actual translation
-produces Core, so polymorphic variables are allowed.
-
-It's also possible to have mutually recursive bindings, using the new
-``rec`` keyword, as in the following example: ::
-
-    counter :: ArrowCircuit a => a Bool Int
-    counter = proc reset -> do
-            rec     output <- returnA -< if reset then 0 else next
-                    next <- delay 0 -< output+1
-            returnA -< output
-
-The translation of such forms uses the ``loop`` combinator, so the arrow
-concerned must belong to the ``ArrowLoop`` class.
-
-Conditional commands
---------------------
-
-In the previous example, we used a conditional expression to construct
-the input for an arrow. Sometimes we want to conditionally execute
-different commands, as in ::
-
-    proc (x,y) ->
-            if f x y
-            then g -< x+1
-            else h -< y+2
-
-which is translated to ::
-
-    arr (\ (x,y) -> if f x y then Left x else Right y) >>>
-            (arr (\x -> x+1) >>> g) ||| (arr (\y -> y+2) >>> h)
-
-Since the translation uses ``|||``, the arrow concerned must belong to
-the ``ArrowChoice`` class.
-
-There are also ``case`` commands, like ::
-
-    case input of
-        [] -> f -< ()
-        [x] -> g -< x+1
-        x1:x2:xs -> do
-            y <- h -< (x1, x2)
-            ys <- k -< xs
-            returnA -< y:ys
-
-The syntax is the same as for ``case`` expressions, except that the
-bodies of the alternatives are commands rather than expressions. The
-translation is similar to that of ``if`` commands.
-
-Defining your own control structures
-------------------------------------
-
-As we're seen, arrow notation provides constructs, modelled on those for
-expressions, for sequencing, value recursion and conditionals. But
-suitable combinators, which you can define in ordinary Haskell, may also
-be used to build new commands out of existing ones. The basic idea is
-that a command defines an arrow from environments to values. These
-environments assign values to the free local variables of the command.
-Thus combinators that produce arrows from arrows may also be used to
-build commands from commands. For example, the ``ArrowPlus`` class
-includes a combinator ::
-
-    ArrowPlus a => (<+>) :: a b c -> a b c -> a b c
-
-so we can use it to build commands: ::
-
-    expr' = proc x -> do
-                    returnA -< x
-            <+> do
-                    symbol Plus -< ()
-                    y <- term -< ()
-                    expr' -< x + y
-            <+> do
-                    symbol Minus -< ()
-                    y <- term -< ()
-                    expr' -< x - y
-
-(The ``do`` on the first line is needed to prevent the first ``<+> ...``
-from being interpreted as part of the expression on the previous line.)
-This is equivalent to ::
-
-    expr' = (proc x -> returnA -< x)
-            <+> (proc x -> do
-                    symbol Plus -< ()
-                    y <- term -< ()
-                    expr' -< x + y)
-            <+> (proc x -> do
-                    symbol Minus -< ()
-                    y <- term -< ()
-                    expr' -< x - y)
-
-We are actually using ``<+>`` here with the more specific type ::
-
-    ArrowPlus a => (<+>) :: a (e,()) c -> a (e,()) c -> a (e,()) c
-
-It is essential that this operator be polymorphic in ``e`` (representing
-the environment input to the command and thence to its subcommands) and
-satisfy the corresponding naturality property ::
-
-    arr (first k) >>> (f <+> g) = (arr (first k) >>> f) <+> (arr (first k) >>> g)
-
-at least for strict ``k``. (This should be automatic if you're not using
-``seq``.) This ensures that environments seen by the subcommands are
-environments of the whole command, and also allows the translation to
-safely trim these environments. (The second component of the input pairs
-can contain unnamed input values, as described in the next section.) The
-operator must also not use any variable defined within the current arrow
-abstraction.
-
-We could define our own operator ::
-
-    untilA :: ArrowChoice a => a (e,s) () -> a (e,s) Bool -> a (e,s) ()
-    untilA body cond = proc x -> do
-            b <- cond -< x
-            if b then returnA -< ()
-            else do
-                    body -< x
-                    untilA body cond -< x
-
-and use it in the same way. Of course this infix syntax only makes sense
-for binary operators; there is also a more general syntax involving
-special brackets: ::
-
-    proc x -> do
-            y <- f -< x+1
-            (|untilA (increment -< x+y) (within 0.5 -< x)|)
-
-Primitive constructs
---------------------
-
-Some operators will need to pass additional inputs to their subcommands.
-For example, in an arrow type supporting exceptions, the operator that
-attaches an exception handler will wish to pass the exception that
-occurred to the handler. Such an operator might have a type ::
-
-    handleA :: ... => a (e,s) c -> a (e,(Ex,s)) c -> a (e,s) c
-
-where ``Ex`` is the type of exceptions handled. You could then use this
-with arrow notation by writing a command ::
-
-    body `handleA` \ ex -> handler
-
-so that if an exception is raised in the command ``body``, the variable
-``ex`` is bound to the value of the exception and the command
-``handler``, which typically refers to ``ex``, is entered. Though the
-syntax here looks like a functional lambda, we are talking about
-commands, and something different is going on. The input to the arrow
-represented by a command consists of values for the free local variables
-in the command, plus a stack of anonymous values. In all the prior
-examples, we made no assumptions about this stack. In the second
-argument to ``handleA``, the value of the exception has been added to
-the stack input to the handler. The command form of lambda merely gives
-this value a name.
-
-More concretely, the input to a command consists of a pair of an
-environment and a stack. Each value on the stack is paired with the
-remainder of the stack, with an empty stack being ``()``. So operators
-like ``handleA`` that pass extra inputs to their subcommands can be
-designed for use with the notation by placing the values on the stack
-paired with the environment in this way. More precisely, the type of
-each argument of the operator (and its result) should have the form ::
-
-    a (e, (t1, ... (tn, ())...)) t
-
-where ⟨e⟩ is a polymorphic variable (representing the environment) and
-⟨ti⟩ are the types of the values on the stack, with ⟨t1⟩ being the
-"top". The polymorphic variable ⟨e⟩ must not occur in ⟨a⟩, ⟨ti⟩ or ⟨t⟩.
-However the arrows involved need not be the same. Here are some more
-examples of suitable operators: ::
-
-    bracketA :: ... => a (e,s) b -> a (e,(b,s)) c -> a (e,(c,s)) d -> a (e,s) d
-    runReader :: ... => a (e,s) c -> a' (e,(State,s)) c
-    runState :: ... => a (e,s) c -> a' (e,(State,s)) (c,State)
-
-We can supply the extra input required by commands built with the last
-two by applying them to ordinary expressions, as in ::
-
-    proc x -> do
-            s <- ...
-            (|runReader (do { ... })|) s
-
-which adds ``s`` to the stack of inputs to the command built using
-``runReader``.
-
-The command versions of lambda abstraction and application are analogous
-to the expression versions. In particular, the beta and eta rules
-describe equivalences of commands. These three features (operators,
-lambda abstraction and application) are the core of the notation;
-everything else can be built using them, though the results would be
-somewhat clumsy. For example, we could simulate ``do``\-notation by
-defining ::
-
-    bind :: Arrow a => a (e,s) b -> a (e,(b,s)) c -> a (e,s) c
-    u `bind` f = returnA &&& u >>> f
-
-    bind_ :: Arrow a => a (e,s) b -> a (e,s) c -> a (e,s) c
-    u `bind_` f = u `bind` (arr fst >>> f)
-
-We could simulate ``if`` by defining ::
-
-    cond :: ArrowChoice a => a (e,s) b -> a (e,s) b -> a (e,(Bool,s)) b
-    cond f g = arr (\ (e,(b,s)) -> if b then Left (e,s) else Right (e,s)) >>> f ||| g
-
-Differences with the paper
---------------------------
-
--  Instead of a single form of arrow application (arrow tail) with two
-   translations, the implementation provides two forms ``-<``
-   (first-order) and ``-<<`` (higher-order).
-
--  User-defined operators are flagged with banana brackets instead of a
-   new ``form`` keyword.
-
--  In the paper and the previous implementation, values on the stack
-   were paired to the right of the environment in a single argument, but
-   now the environment and stack are separate arguments.
-
-Portability
------------
-
-Although only GHC implements arrow notation directly, there is also a
-preprocessor (available from the `arrows web
-page <http://www.haskell.org/arrows/>`__) that translates arrow notation
-into Haskell 98 for use with other Haskell systems. You would still want
-to check arrow programs with GHC; tracing type errors in the
-preprocessor output is not easy. Modules intended for both GHC and the
-preprocessor must observe some additional restrictions:
-
--  The module must import :base-ref:`Control.Arrow.`.
-
--  The preprocessor cannot cope with other Haskell extensions. These
-   would have to go in separate modules.
-
--  Because the preprocessor targets Haskell (rather than Core),
-   ``let``\-bound variables are monomorphic.
-
-.. _bang-patterns:
-
-.. _strict-haskell:
-
-Bang patterns and Strict Haskell
-================================
-
-.. index::
-   single: strict haskell
-
-.. index::
-   single: Bang patterns
-
-In high-performance Haskell code (e.g. numeric code) eliminating
-thunks from an inner loop can be a huge win.
-GHC supports three extensions to allow the programmer to specify
-use of strict (call-by-value) evaluation rather than lazy (call-by-need)
-evaluation.
-
-- Bang patterns (:extension:`BangPatterns`) makes pattern matching and
-  let bindings stricter.
-
-- Strict data types (:extension:`StrictData`) makes constructor fields
-  strict by default, on a per-module basis.
-
-- Strict pattern (:extension:`Strict`) makes all patterns and let bindings
-  strict by default, on a per-module basis.
-
-The latter two extensions are simply a way to avoid littering high-performance
-code with bang patterns, making it harder to read.
-
-Bang patterns and strict matching do not affect the type system in any way.
-
-.. _bang-patterns-informal:
-
-Bang patterns
--------------
-
-.. extension:: BangPatterns
-    :shortdesc: Enable bang patterns.
-
-    :since: 6.8.1
-
-    Allow use of bang pattern syntax.
-
-GHC supports an extension of pattern matching called *bang patterns*,
-written ``!pat``. Bang patterns are under consideration for Haskell
-Prime. The `Haskell prime feature
-description <http://ghc.haskell.org/trac/haskell-prime/wiki/BangPatterns>`__
-contains more discussion and examples than the material below.
-
-The main idea is to add a single new production to the syntax of
-patterns: ::
-
-      pat ::= !pat
-
-Matching an expression ``e`` against a pattern ``!p`` is done by first
-evaluating ``e`` (to WHNF) and then matching the result against ``p``.
-Example: ::
-
-    f1 !x = True
-
-This definition makes ``f1`` is strict in ``x``, whereas without the
-bang it would be lazy. Bang patterns can be nested of course: ::
-
-    f2 (!x, y) = [x,y]
-
-Here, ``f2`` is strict in ``x`` but not in ``y``.
-
-Note the following points:
-
-- A bang only really has
-  an effect if it precedes a variable or wild-card pattern: ::
-
-    f3 !(x,y) = [x,y]
-    f4 (x,y)  = [x,y]
-
-  Here, ``f3`` and ``f4`` are identical; putting a bang before a pattern
-  that forces evaluation anyway does nothing.
-
-- A bang pattern is allowed in a let or where clause, and makes the binding
-  strict.  For example: ::
-
-    let !x = e in body
-    let !(p,q) = e in body
-
-  In both cases ``e`` is evaluated before starting to evaluate ``body``.
-
-  However, *nested* bangs in a let/where pattern binding behave uniformly with all
-  other forms of pattern matching. For example ::
-
-    let (!x,[y]) = e in b
-
-  is equivalent to this: ::
-
-    let { t = case e of (x,[y]) -> x `seq` (x,y)
-          x = fst t
-          y = snd t }
-    in b
-
-  The binding is lazy, but when either ``x`` or ``y`` is evaluated by
-  ``b`` the entire pattern is matched, including forcing the evaluation of
-  ``x``.
-
-  See :ref:`Semantics of let bindings with bang patterns <recursive-and-polymorphic-let-bindings>` for
-  the detailed semantics.
-
-- A pattern with a bang at the outermost level is not allowed at the top
-  level of a module.
-
-- Bang patterns work in ``case`` expressions too, of course: ::
-
-    g5 x = let y = f x in body
-    g6 x = case f x of { y -> body }
-    g7 x = case f x of { !y -> body }
-
-  The functions ``g5`` and ``g6`` mean exactly the same thing. But ``g7``
-  evaluates ``(f x)``, binds ``y`` to the result, and then evaluates
-  ``body``.
-
-- There is one problem with syntactic ambiguity. Consider: ::
-
-    f !x = 3
-
-  Is this a definition of the infix function "``(!)``", or of the "``f``" with
-  a bang pattern? GHC resolves this ambiguity by looking at the surrounding
-  whitespace: ::
-
-    a ! b = ...   -- infix operator
-    a !b = ...    -- bang pattern
-
-  See `GHC Proposal #229 <https://github.com/ghc-proposals/ghc-proposals/blob/master/proposals/0229-whitespace-bang-patterns.rst>`__
-  for the precise rules.
-
-
-.. _strict-data:
-
-Strict-by-default data types
-----------------------------
-
-.. extension:: StrictData
-    :shortdesc: Enable default strict datatype fields.
-
-    :since: 8.0.1
-
-    Make fields of data types defined in the current module strict by default.
-
-Informally the ``StrictData`` language extension switches data type
-declarations to be strict by default allowing fields to be lazy by
-adding a ``~`` in front of the field.
-
-When the user writes ::
-
-          data T = C a
-          data T' = C' ~a
-
-we interpret it as if they had written ::
-
-          data T = C !a
-          data T' = C' a
-
-The extension only affects definitions in this module.
-
-The ``~`` annotation must be written in prefix form::
-
-   data T = MkT ~Int   -- valid
-   data T = MkT ~ Int  -- invalid
-
-See `GHC Proposal #229 <https://github.com/ghc-proposals/ghc-proposals/blob/master/proposals/0229-whitespace-bang-patterns.rst>`__
-for the precise rules.
-
-.. _strict:
-
-Strict-by-default pattern bindings
-----------------------------------
-
-.. extension:: Strict
-    :shortdesc: Make bindings in the current module strict by default.
-
-    :implies: :extension:`StrictData`
-    :since: 8.0.1
-
-    Make bindings in the current module strict by default.
-
-Informally the ``Strict`` language extension switches functions, data
-types, and bindings to be strict by default, allowing optional laziness
-by adding ``~`` in front of a variable. This essentially reverses the
-present situation where laziness is default and strictness can be
-optionally had by adding ``!`` in front of a variable.
-
-``Strict`` implies :ref:`StrictData <strict-data>`.
-
--  **Function definitions**
-
-   When the user writes ::
-
-       f x = ...
-
-   we interpret it as if they had written ::
-
-       f !x = ...
-
-   Adding ``~`` in front of ``x`` gives the regular lazy behavior.
-
-   Turning patterns into irrefutable ones requires ``~(~p)`` when ``Strict`` is enabled.
-
-
-
--  **Let/where bindings**
-
-   When the user writes ::
-
-     let x = ...
-     let pat = ...
-
-   we interpret it as if they had written ::
-
-     let !x = ...
-     let !pat = ...
-
-   Adding ``~`` in front of ``x`` gives the regular lazy
-   behavior.
-   The general rule is that we add an implicit bang on the outermost pattern,
-   unless disabled with ``~``.
-
--  **Pattern matching in case expressions, lambdas, do-notation, etc**
-
-   The outermost pattern of all pattern matches gets an implicit bang,
-   unless disabled with ``~``.
-   This applies to case expressions, patterns in lambda, do-notation,
-   list comprehension, and so on.
-   For example ::
-
-       case x of (a,b) -> rhs
-
-   is interpreted as ::
-
-       case x of !(a,b) -> rhs
-
-   Since the semantics of pattern matching in case expressions is
-   strict, this usually has no effect whatsoever. But it does make a
-   difference in the degenerate case of variables and newtypes. So ::
-
-       case x of y -> rhs
-
-   is lazy in Haskell, but with ``Strict`` is interpreted as ::
-
-       case x of !y -> rhs
-
-   which evaluates ``x``. Similarly, if ``newtype Age = MkAge Int``, then ::
-
-       case x of MkAge i -> rhs
-
-   is lazy in Haskell; but with ``Strict`` the added bang makes it
-   strict.
-
-   Similarly ::
-
-      \ x -> body
-      do { x <- rhs; blah }
-      [ e | x <- rhs; blah }
-
-   all get implicit bangs on the ``x`` pattern.
-
--  **Nested patterns**
-
-   Notice that we do *not* put bangs on nested patterns. For
-   example ::
-
-     let (p,q) = if flob then (undefined, undefined) else (True, False)
-     in ...
-
-   will behave like ::
-
-     let !(p,q) = if flob then (undefined, undefined) else (True,False)
-     in ...
-
-   which will strictly evaluate the right hand side, and bind ``p``
-   and ``q`` to the components of the pair. But the pair itself is
-   lazy (unless we also compile the ``Prelude`` with ``Strict``; see
-   :ref:`strict-modularity` below). So ``p`` and ``q`` may end up bound to
-   undefined. See also :ref:`recursive-and-polymorphic-let-bindings` below.
-
--  **Top level bindings**
-
-   are unaffected by ``Strict``. For example: ::
-
-       x = factorial 20
-       (y,z) = if x > 10 then True else False
-
-   Here ``x`` and the pattern binding ``(y,z)`` remain lazy. Reason:
-   there is no good moment to force them, until first use.
-
--  **Newtypes**
-
-   There is no effect on newtypes, which simply rename existing types.
-   For example: ::
-
-       newtype T = C a
-       f (C x)  = rhs1
-       g !(C x) = rhs2
-
-   In ordinary Haskell, ``f`` is lazy in its argument and hence in
-   ``x``; and ``g`` is strict in its argument and hence also strict in
-   ``x``. With ``Strict``, both become strict because ``f``'s argument
-   gets an implicit bang.
-
-
-.. _strict-modularity:
-
-Modularity
-----------
-
-``Strict`` and ``StrictData`` only affects definitions in the module
-they are used in. Functions and data types imported from other modules
-are unaffected. For example, we won't evaluate the argument to
-``Just`` before applying the constructor.  Similarly we won't evaluate
-the first argument to ``Data.Map.findWithDefault`` before applying the
-function.
-
-This is crucial to preserve correctness. Entities defined in other
-modules might rely on laziness for correctness (whether functional or
-performance).
-
-Tuples, lists, ``Maybe``, and all the other types from ``Prelude``
-continue to have their existing, lazy, semantics.
-
-.. _bang-patterns-sem:
-.. _recursive-and-polymorphic-let-bindings:
-
-Dynamic semantics of bang patterns
-----------------------------------
-
-The semantics of Haskell pattern matching is described in `Section
-3.17.2 <http://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/exps.html#sect3.17.2>`__ of
-the Haskell Report. To this description add one extra item 10, saying:
-
--  Matching the pattern ``!pat`` against a value ``v`` behaves as
-   follows:
-
-   -  if ``v`` is bottom, the match diverges
-
-   -  otherwise, ``pat`` is matched against ``v``
-
-Similarly, in Figure 4 of `Section
-3.17.3 <http://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/exps.html#sect3.17.3>`__,
-add a new case (t): ::
-
-    case v of { !pat -> e; _ -> e' }
-       = v `seq` case v of { pat -> e; _ -> e' }
-
-That leaves let expressions, whose translation is given in `Section
-3.12 <http://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/exps.html#sect3.12>`__ of the
-Haskell Report.
-Replace the "Translation" there with the following one.  Given
-``let { bind1 ... bindn } in body``:
-
-.. admonition:: FORCE
-
-    Replace any binding ``!p = e`` with ``v = case e of p -> (x1, ..., xn); (x1, ..., xn) = v`` and replace
-    ``body`` with ``v seq body``, where ``v`` is fresh. This translation works fine if
-    ``p`` is already a variable ``x``, but can obviously be optimised by not
-    introducing a fresh variable ``v``.
-
-.. admonition:: SPLIT
-
-    Replace any binding ``p = e``, where ``p`` is not a variable, with
-    ``v = e; x1 = case v of p -> x1; ...; xn = case v of p -> xn``, where
-    ``v`` is fresh and ``x1``.. ``xn`` are the bound variables of ``p``.
-    Again if ``e`` is a variable, this can be optimised by not introducing a
-    fresh variable.
-
-The result will be a (possibly) recursive set of bindings, binding
-only simple variables on the left hand side. (One could go one step
-further, as in the Haskell Report and make the recursive bindings
-non-recursive using ``fix``, but we do not do so in Core, and it only
-obfuscates matters, so we do not do so here.)
-
-The translation is carefully crafted to make bang patterns meaningful
-for recursive and polymorphic bindings as well as straightforward
-non-recursive bindings.
-
-Here are some examples of how this translation works. The first
-expression of each sequence is Haskell source; the subsequent ones are
-Core.
-
-Here is a simple non-recursive case: ::
-
-    let x :: Int     -- Non-recursive
-        !x = factorial y
-    in body
-
-    ===> (FORCE)
-        let x = factorial y in x `seq` body
-
-    ===> (inline seq)
-        let x = factorial y in case x of x -> body
-
-    ===> (inline x)
-        case factorial y of x -> body
-
-Same again, only with a pattern binding: ::
-
-    let !(Just x, Left y) = e in body
-
-    ===> (FORCE)
-        let v = case e of (Just x, Left y) -> (x,y)
-            (x,y) = v
-        in v `seq` body
-
-    ===> (SPLIT)
-        let v = case e of (Just x, Left y) -> (x,y)
-            x = case v of (x,y) -> x
-            y = case v of (x,y) -> y
-        in v `seq` body
-
-    ===> (inline seq, float x,y bindings inwards)
-        let v = case e of (Just x, Left y) -> (x,y)
-        in case v of v -> let x = case v of (x,y) -> x
-                              y = case v of (x,y) -> y
-                          in body
-
-    ===> (fluff up v's pattern; this is a standard Core optimisation)
-        let v = case e of (Just x, Left y) -> (x,y)
-        in case v of v@(p,q) -> let x = case v of (x,y) -> x
-                                    y = case v of (x,y) -> y
-                                in body
-
-    ===> (case of known constructor)
-        let v = case e of (Just x, Left y) -> (x,y)
-        in case v of v@(p,q) -> let x = p
-                                    y = q
-                                in body
-
-    ===> (inline x,y, v)
-        case (case e of (Just x, Left y) -> (x,y) of
-            (p,q) -> body[p/x, q/y]
-
-    ===> (case of case)
-        case e of (Just x, Left y) -> body[p/x, q/y]
-
-The final form is just what we want: a simple case expression.
-
-Here is a recursive case ::
-
-    letrec xs :: [Int]  -- Recursive
-            !xs = factorial y : xs
-    in body
-
-    ===> (FORCE)
-        letrec xs = factorial y : xs in xs `seq` body
-
-    ===> (inline seq)
-        letrec xs = factorial y : xs in case xs of xs -> body
-
-    ===> (eliminate case of value)
-        letrec xs = factorial y : xs in body
-
-and a polymorphic one: ::
-
-    let f :: forall a. [a] -> [a]    -- Polymorphic
-        !f = fst (reverse, True)
-    in body
-
-    ===> (FORCE)
-        let f = /\a. fst (reverse a, True) in f `seq` body
-    ===> (inline seq, inline f)
-        case (/\a. fst (reverse a, True)) of f -> body
-
-Notice that the ``seq`` is added only in the translation to Core
-If we did it in Haskell source, thus ::
-
-   let f = ... in f `seq` body
-
-then ``f``\ 's polymorphic type would get instantiated, so the Core
-translation would be ::
-
-   let f = ... in f Any `seq` body
-
-
-When overloading is involved, the results might be slightly counter
-intuitive: ::
-
-    let f :: forall a. Eq a => a -> [a] -> Bool    -- Overloaded
-        !f = fst (member, True)
-    in body
-
-    ===> (FORCE)
-        let f = /\a \(d::Eq a). fst (member, True) in f `seq` body
-
-    ===> (inline seq, case of value)
-        let f = /\a \(d::Eq a). fst (member, True) in body
-
-Note that the bang has no effect at all in this case
-
-
-.. _assertions:
-
-Assertions
-==========
-
-.. index::
-   single: Assertions
-
-If you want to make use of assertions in your standard Haskell code, you
-could define a function like the following: ::
-
-    assert :: Bool -> a -> a
-    assert False x = error "assertion failed!"
-    assert _     x = x
-
-which works, but gives you back a less than useful error message -- an
-assertion failed, but which and where?
-
-One way out is to define an extended ``assert`` function which also
-takes a descriptive string to include in the error message and perhaps
-combine this with the use of a pre-processor which inserts the source
-location where ``assert`` was used.
-
-GHC offers a helping hand here, doing all of this for you. For every use
-of ``assert`` in the user's source: ::
-
-    kelvinToC :: Double -> Double
-    kelvinToC k = assert (k >= 0.0) (k-273.15)
-
-GHC will rewrite this to also include the source location where the
-assertion was made, ::
-
-    assert pred val ==> assertError "Main.hs|15" pred val
-
-The rewrite is only performed by the compiler when it spots applications
-of ``Control.Exception.assert``, so you can still define and use your
-own versions of ``assert``, should you so wish. If not, import
-``Control.Exception`` to make use ``assert`` in your code.
-
-.. index::
-   pair: assertions; disabling
-
-GHC ignores assertions when optimisation is turned on with the
-:ghc-flag:`-O` flag. That is, expressions of the form ``assert pred e``
-will be rewritten to ``e``. You can also disable assertions using the
-:ghc-flag:`-fignore-asserts` option. The option
-:ghc-flag:`-fno-ignore-asserts <-fignore-asserts>`
-allows enabling assertions even when optimisation is turned on.
-
-Assertion failures can be caught, see the documentation for the
-:base-ref:`Control.Exception` library for the details.
-
-.. _static-pointers:
-
-Static pointers
-===============
-
-.. index::
-   single: Static pointers
-
-.. extension:: StaticPointers
-    :shortdesc: Enable static pointers.
-
-    :since: 7.10.1
-
-    Allow use of static pointer syntax.
-
-The language extension :extension:`StaticPointers` adds a new syntactic form
-``static e``, which stands for a reference to the closed expression ⟨e⟩.
-This reference is stable and portable, in the sense that it remains
-valid across different processes on possibly different machines. Thus, a
-process can create a reference and send it to another process that can
-resolve it to ⟨e⟩.
-
-With this extension turned on, ``static`` is no longer a valid
-identifier.
-
-Static pointers were first proposed in the paper `Towards Haskell in the
-cloud <http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/people/simonpj/papers/parallel/remote.pdf>`__,
-Jeff Epstein, Andrew P. Black and Simon Peyton-Jones, Proceedings of the
-4th ACM Symposium on Haskell, pp. 118-129, ACM, 2011.
-
-.. _using-static-pointers:
-
-Using static pointers
----------------------
-
-Each reference is given a key which can be used to locate it at runtime
-with :base-ref:`GHC.StaticPtr.unsafeLookupStaticPtr`
-which uses a global and immutable table called the Static Pointer Table.
-The compiler includes entries in this table for all static forms found
-in the linked modules. The value can be obtained from the reference via
-:base-ref:`GHC.StaticPtr.deRefStaticPtr`.
-
-The body ``e`` of a ``static e`` expression must be a closed expression. Where
-we say an expression is *closed* when all of its free (type) variables are
-closed. And a variable is *closed* if it is let-bound to a *closed* expression
-and its type is *closed* as well. And a type is *closed* if it has no free
-variables.
-
-All of the following are permissible: ::
-
-    inc :: Int -> Int
-    inc x = x + 1
-
-    ref1 = static 1
-    ref2 = static inc
-    ref3 = static (inc 1)
-    ref4 = static ((\x -> x + 1) (1 :: Int))
-    ref5 y = static (let x = 1 in x)
-    ref6 y = let x = 1 in static x
-
-While the following definitions are rejected: ::
-
-    ref7 y = let x = y in static x    -- x is not closed
-    ref8 y = static (let x = 1 in y)  -- y is not let-bound
-    ref8 (y :: a) = let x = undefined :: a
-                     in static x      -- x has a non-closed type
-
-.. note::
-
-    While modules loaded in GHCi with the :ghci-cmd:`:load` command may use
-    :extension:`StaticPointers` and ``static`` expressions, statements
-    entered on the REPL may not. This is a limitation of GHCi; see
-    :ghc-ticket:`12356` for details.
-
-.. note::
-
-    The set of keys used for locating static pointers in the Static Pointer
-    Table is not guaranteed to remain stable for different program binaries.
-    Or in other words, only processes launched from the same program binary
-    are guaranteed to use the same set of keys.
-
-.. _typechecking-static-pointers:
-
-Static semantics of static pointers
------------------------------------
-
-Informally, if we have a closed expression ::
-
-    e :: forall a_1 ... a_n . t
-
-the static form is of type ::
-
-    static e :: (IsStatic p, Typeable a_1, ... , Typeable a_n) => p t
-
-
-A static form determines a value of type ``StaticPtr t``, but just
-like ``OverloadedLists`` and ``OverloadedStrings``, this literal
-expression is overloaded to allow lifting a ``StaticPtr`` into another
-type implicitly, via the ``IsStatic`` class: ::
-
-    class IsStatic p where
-        fromStaticPtr :: StaticPtr a -> p a
-
-The only predefined instance is the obvious one that does nothing: ::
-
-    instance IsStatic StaticPtr where
-        fromStaticPtr sptr = sptr
-
-See :base-ref:`GHC.StaticPtr.IsStatic`.
-
-Furthermore, type ``t`` is constrained to have a ``Typeable`` instance.
-The following are therefore illegal: ::
-
-    static show                    -- No Typeable instance for (Show a => a -> String)
-    static Control.Monad.ST.runST  -- No Typeable instance for ((forall s. ST s a) -> a)
-
-That being said, with the appropriate use of wrapper datatypes, the
-above limitations induce no loss of generality: ::
-
-    {-# LANGUAGE ConstraintKinds           #-}
-    {-# LANGUAGE ExistentialQuantification #-}
-    {-# LANGUAGE Rank2Types                #-}
-    {-# LANGUAGE StandaloneDeriving        #-}
-    {-# LANGUAGE StaticPointers            #-}
-
-    import Control.Monad.ST
-    import Data.Typeable
-    import GHC.StaticPtr
-
-    data Dict c = c => Dict
-
-    g1 :: Typeable a => StaticPtr (Dict (Show a) -> a -> String)
-    g1 = static (\Dict -> show)
-
-    data Rank2Wrapper f = R2W (forall s. f s)
-      deriving Typeable
-    newtype Flip f a s = Flip { unFlip :: f s a }
-      deriving Typeable
-
-    g2 :: Typeable a => StaticPtr (Rank2Wrapper (Flip ST a) -> a)
-    g2 = static (\(R2W f) -> runST (unFlip f))
-
-.. _pragmas:
-
-Pragmas
-=======
-
-.. index::
-   single: pragma
-
-GHC supports several pragmas, or instructions to the compiler placed in
-the source code. Pragmas don't normally affect the meaning of the
-program, but they might affect the efficiency of the generated code.
-
-Pragmas all take the form ``{-# word ... #-}`` where ⟨word⟩ indicates
-the type of pragma, and is followed optionally by information specific
-to that type of pragma. Case is ignored in ⟨word⟩. The various values
-for ⟨word⟩ that GHC understands are described in the following sections;
-any pragma encountered with an unrecognised ⟨word⟩ is ignored. The
-layout rule applies in pragmas, so the closing ``#-}`` should start in a
-column to the right of the opening ``{-#``.
-
-Certain pragmas are *file-header pragmas*:
-
--  A file-header pragma must precede the ``module`` keyword in the file.
-
--  There can be as many file-header pragmas as you please, and they can
-   be preceded or followed by comments.
-
--  File-header pragmas are read once only, before pre-processing the
-   file (e.g. with cpp).
-
--  The file-header pragmas are: ``{-# LANGUAGE #-}``,
-   ``{-# OPTIONS_GHC #-}``, and ``{-# INCLUDE #-}``.
-
-.. _language-pragma:
-
-``LANGUAGE`` pragma
--------------------
-
-.. pragma:: LANGUAGE ⟨ext⟩, ⟨ext⟩, ...
-
-    :where: file header
-
-    Enable or disable a set of language extensions.
-
-The ``LANGUAGE`` pragma allows language extensions to be enabled in a
-portable way. It is the intention that all Haskell compilers support the
-``LANGUAGE`` pragma with the same syntax, although not all extensions
-are supported by all compilers, of course. The ``LANGUAGE`` pragma
-should be used instead of ``OPTIONS_GHC``, if possible.
-
-For example, to enable the FFI and preprocessing with CPP: ::
-
-    {-# LANGUAGE ForeignFunctionInterface, CPP #-}
-
-``LANGUAGE`` is a file-header pragma (see :ref:`pragmas`).
-
-Every language extension can also be turned into a command-line flag by
-prefixing it with "``-X``"; for example ``-XForeignFunctionInterface``.
-(Similarly, all "``-X``" flags can be written as ``LANGUAGE`` pragmas.)
-
-A list of all supported language extensions can be obtained by invoking
-``ghc --supported-extensions`` (see :ghc-flag:`--supported-extensions`).
-
-Any extension from the ``Extension`` type defined in
-:cabal-ref:`Language.Haskell.Extension.` may be used. GHC will report an error
-if any of the requested extensions are not supported.
-
-.. _options-pragma:
-
-``OPTIONS_GHC`` pragma
-----------------------
-
-.. pragma:: OPTIONS_GHC ⟨flags⟩
-
-    :where: file header
-
-The ``OPTIONS_GHC`` pragma is used to specify additional options that
-are given to the compiler when compiling this source file. See
-:ref:`source-file-options` for details.
-
-Previous versions of GHC accepted ``OPTIONS`` rather than
-``OPTIONS_GHC``, but that is now deprecated.
-
-``OPTIONS_GHC`` is a file-header pragma (see :ref:`pragmas`).
-
-.. _include-pragma:
-
-``INCLUDE`` pragma
-------------------
-
-The ``INCLUDE`` used to be necessary for specifying header files to be
-included when using the FFI and compiling via C. It is no longer
-required for GHC, but is accepted (and ignored) for compatibility with
-other compilers.
-
-.. _warning-deprecated-pragma:
-
-``WARNING`` and ``DEPRECATED`` pragmas
---------------------------------------
-
-.. pragma:: WARNING
-
-    :where: declaration
-
-    The ``WARNING`` pragma allows you to attach an arbitrary warning to a
-    particular function, class, or type.
-
-.. pragma:: DEPRECATED
-
-    :where: declaration
-
-    A ``DEPRECATED`` pragma lets you specify that a particular function, class,
-    or type is deprecated.
-
-There are two ways of using these pragmas.
-
--  You can work on an entire module thus: ::
-
-          module Wibble {-# DEPRECATED "Use Wobble instead" #-} where
-            ...
-
-   Or: ::
-
-          module Wibble {-# WARNING "This is an unstable interface." #-} where
-            ...
-
-   When you compile any module that import ``Wibble``, GHC will print
-   the specified message.
-
--  You can attach a warning to a function, class, type, or data
-   constructor, with the following top-level declarations: ::
-
-          {-# DEPRECATED f, C, T "Don't use these" #-}
-          {-# WARNING unsafePerformIO "This is unsafe; I hope you know what you're doing" #-}
-
-   When you compile any module that imports and uses any of the
-   specified entities, GHC will print the specified message.
-
-   You can only attach to entities declared at top level in the module
-   being compiled, and you can only use unqualified names in the list of
-   entities. A capitalised name, such as ``T`` refers to *either* the
-   type constructor ``T`` *or* the data constructor ``T``, or both if
-   both are in scope. If both are in scope, there is currently no way to
-   specify one without the other (c.f. fixities :ref:`infix-tycons`).
-
-Also note that the argument to ``DEPRECATED`` and ``WARNING`` can also be a list
-of strings, in which case the strings will be presented on separate lines in the
-resulting warning message, ::
-
-    {-# DEPRECATED foo, bar ["Don't use these", "Use gar instead"] #-}
-
-Warnings and deprecations are not reported for (a) uses within the
-defining module, (b) defining a method in a class instance, and (c) uses
-in an export list. The latter reduces spurious complaints within a
-library in which one module gathers together and re-exports the exports
-of several others.
-
-You can suppress the warnings with the flag
-:ghc-flag:`-Wno-warnings-deprecations <-Wwarnings-deprecations>`.
-
-.. _minimal-pragma:
-
-``MINIMAL`` pragma
-------------------
-
-.. pragma:: MINIMAL ⟨name⟩ | ⟨name⟩ , ...
-
-    :where: in class body
-
-    Define the methods needed for a minimal complete instance of a class.
-
-The ``MINIMAL`` pragma is used to specify the minimal complete definition of
-a class, i.e. specify which methods must be implemented by all
-instances. If an instance does not satisfy the minimal complete
-definition, then a warning is generated. This can be useful when a class
-has methods with circular defaults. For example ::
-
-    class Eq a where
-        (==) :: a -> a -> Bool
-        (/=) :: a -> a -> Bool
-        x == y = not (x /= y)
-        x /= y = not (x == y)
-        {-# MINIMAL (==) | (/=) #-}
-
-Without the ``MINIMAL`` pragma no warning would be generated for an instance
-that implements neither method.
-
-The syntax for minimal complete definition is: ::
-
-    mindef ::= name
-            |  '(' mindef ')'
-            |  mindef '|' mindef
-            |  mindef ',' mindef
-
-A vertical bar denotes disjunction, i.e. one of the two sides is
-required. A comma denotes conjunction, i.e. both sides are required.
-Conjunction binds stronger than disjunction.
-
-If no ``MINIMAL`` pragma is given in the class declaration, it is just as if
-a pragma ``{-# MINIMAL op1, op2, ..., opn #-}`` was given, where the
-``opi`` are the methods that lack a default method in the class
-declaration (c.f. :ghc-flag:`-Wmissing-methods`, :ref:`options-sanity`).
-
-This warning can be turned off with the flag
-:ghc-flag:`-Wno-missing-methods <-Wmissing-methods>`.
-
-.. _inline-noinline-pragma:
-
-``INLINE`` and ``NOINLINE`` pragmas
------------------------------------
-
-These pragmas control the inlining of function definitions.
-
-.. _inline-pragma:
-
-``INLINE`` pragma
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-.. pragma:: INLINE ⟨name⟩
-
-    :where: top-level
-
-    Force GHC to inline a value.
-
-GHC (with :ghc-flag:`-O`, as always) tries to inline (or "unfold")
-functions/values that are "small enough," thus avoiding the call
-overhead and possibly exposing other more-wonderful optimisations. GHC
-has a set of heuristics, tuned over a long period of time using many
-benchmarks, that decide when it is beneficial to inline a function at
-its call site. The heuristics are designed to inline functions when it
-appears to be beneficial to do so, but without incurring excessive code
-bloat. If a function looks too big, it won't be inlined, and functions
-larger than a certain size will not even have their definition exported
-in the interface file. Some of the thresholds that govern these
-heuristic decisions can be changed using flags, see :ref:`options-f`.
-
-Normally GHC will do a reasonable job of deciding by itself when it is a
-good idea to inline a function. However, sometimes you might want to
-override the default behaviour. For example, if you have a key function
-that is important to inline because it leads to further optimisations,
-but GHC judges it to be too big to inline.
-
-The sledgehammer you can bring to bear is the ``INLINE`` pragma, used thusly: ::
-
-    key_function :: Int -> String -> (Bool, Double)
-    {-# INLINE key_function #-}
-
-The major effect of an ``INLINE`` pragma is to declare a function's
-"cost" to be very low. The normal unfolding machinery will then be very
-keen to inline it. However, an ``INLINE`` pragma for a function "``f``"
-has a number of other effects:
-
--  While GHC is keen to inline the function, it does not do so blindly.
-   For example, if you write ::
-
-       map key_function xs
-
-   there really isn't any point in inlining ``key_function`` to get ::
-
-       map (\x -> body) xs
-
-   In general, GHC only inlines the function if there is some reason (no
-   matter how slight) to suppose that it is useful to do so.
-
--  Moreover, GHC will only inline the function if it is *fully applied*,
-   where "fully applied" means applied to as many arguments as appear
-   (syntactically) on the LHS of the function definition. For example: ::
-
-       comp1 :: (b -> c) -> (a -> b) -> a -> c
-       {-# INLINE comp1 #-}
-       comp1 f g = \x -> f (g x)
-
-       comp2 :: (b -> c) -> (a -> b) -> a -> c
-       {-# INLINE comp2 #-}
-       comp2 f g x = f (g x)
-
-   The two functions ``comp1`` and ``comp2`` have the same semantics,
-   but ``comp1`` will be inlined when applied to *two* arguments, while
-   ``comp2`` requires *three*. This might make a big difference if you
-   say ::
-
-       map (not `comp1` not) xs
-
-   which will optimise better than the corresponding use of ``comp2``.
-
--  It is useful for GHC to optimise the definition of an INLINE function
-   ``f`` just like any other non-``INLINE`` function, in case the
-   non-inlined version of ``f`` is ultimately called. But we don't want
-   to inline the *optimised* version of ``f``; a major reason for ``INLINE``
-   pragmas is to expose functions in ``f``\'s RHS that have rewrite
-   rules, and it's no good if those functions have been optimised away.
-
-   So *GHC guarantees to inline precisely the code that you wrote*, no
-   more and no less. It does this by capturing a copy of the definition
-   of the function to use for inlining (we call this the "inline-RHS"),
-   which it leaves untouched, while optimising the ordinarily RHS as
-   usual. For externally-visible functions the inline-RHS (not the
-   optimised RHS) is recorded in the interface file.
-
--  An ``INLINE`` function is not worker/wrappered by strictness analysis.
-   It's going to be inlined wholesale instead.
-
-GHC ensures that inlining cannot go on forever: every mutually-recursive
-group is cut by one or more *loop breakers* that is never inlined (see
-`Secrets of the GHC inliner, JFP 12(4) July
-2002 <http://research.microsoft.com/%7Esimonpj/Papers/inlining/index.htm>`__).
-GHC tries not to select a function with an ``INLINE`` pragma as a loop
-breaker, but when there is no choice even an INLINE function can be
-selected, in which case the ``INLINE`` pragma is ignored. For example, for a
-self-recursive function, the loop breaker can only be the function
-itself, so an ``INLINE`` pragma is always ignored.
-
-Syntactically, an ``INLINE`` pragma for a function can be put anywhere
-its type signature could be put.
-
-``INLINE`` pragmas are a particularly good idea for the
-``then``/``return`` (or ``bind``/``unit``) functions in a monad. For
-example, in GHC's own ``UniqueSupply`` monad code, we have: ::
-
-    {-# INLINE thenUs #-}
-    {-# INLINE returnUs #-}
-
-See also the ``NOINLINE`` (:ref:`noinline-pragma`) and ``INLINABLE``
-(:ref:`inlinable-pragma`) pragmas.
-
-.. _inlinable-pragma:
-
-``INLINABLE`` pragma
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-.. pragma:: INLINABLE ⟨name⟩
-
-    :where: top-level
-
-    Suggest that the compiler always consider inlining ``name``.
-
-An ``{-# INLINABLE f #-}`` pragma on a function ``f`` has the following
-behaviour:
-
--  While ``INLINE`` says "please inline me", the ``INLINABLE`` says
-   "feel free to inline me; use your discretion". In other words the
-   choice is left to GHC, which uses the same rules as for pragma-free
-   functions. Unlike ``INLINE``, that decision is made at the *call
-   site*, and will therefore be affected by the inlining threshold,
-   optimisation level etc.
-
--  Like ``INLINE``, the ``INLINABLE`` pragma retains a copy of the
-   original RHS for inlining purposes, and persists it in the interface
-   file, regardless of the size of the RHS.
-
--  One way to use ``INLINABLE`` is in conjunction with the special
-   function ``inline`` (:ref:`special-ids`). The call ``inline f`` tries
-   very hard to inline ``f``. To make sure that ``f`` can be inlined, it
-   is a good idea to mark the definition of ``f`` as ``INLINABLE``, so
-   that GHC guarantees to expose an unfolding regardless of how big it
-   is. Moreover, by annotating ``f`` as ``INLINABLE``, you ensure that
-   ``f``\'s original RHS is inlined, rather than whatever random
-   optimised version of ``f`` GHC's optimiser has produced.
-
--  The ``INLINABLE`` pragma also works with ``SPECIALISE``: if you mark
-   function ``f`` as ``INLINABLE``, then you can subsequently
-   ``SPECIALISE`` in another module (see :ref:`specialize-pragma`).
-
--  Unlike ``INLINE``, it is OK to use an ``INLINABLE`` pragma on a
-   recursive function. The principal reason do to so to allow later use
-   of ``SPECIALISE``
-
-The alternative spelling ``INLINEABLE`` is also accepted by GHC.
-
-.. _noinline-pragma:
-
-``NOINLINE`` pragma
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-.. index::
-   single: NOTINLINE
-
-.. pragma:: NOINLINE ⟨name⟩
-
-    :where: top-level
-
-    Instructs the compiler not to inline a value.
-
-The :pragma:`NOINLINE` pragma does exactly what you'd expect: it stops the
-named function from being inlined by the compiler. You shouldn't ever
-need to do this, unless you're very cautious about code size.
-
-``NOTINLINE`` is a synonym for ``NOINLINE`` (``NOINLINE`` is specified
-by Haskell 98 as the standard way to disable inlining, so it should be
-used if you want your code to be portable).
-
-.. _conlike-pragma:
-
-``CONLIKE`` modifier
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-.. pragma:: CONLIKE
-
-    :where: modifies :pragma:`INLINE` or :pragma:`NOINLINE` pragma
-
-    Instructs GHC to consider a value to be especially cheap to inline.
-
-An :pragma:`INLINE` or :pragma:`NOINLINE` pragma may have a :pragma:`CONLIKE` modifier, which affects
-matching in :pragma:`RULE <RULES>`\s (only). See :ref:`conlike`.
-
-.. _phase-control:
-
-Phase control
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-Sometimes you want to control exactly when in GHC's pipeline the :pragma:`INLINE`
-pragma is switched on. Inlining happens only during runs of the
-*simplifier*. Each run of the simplifier has a different *phase number*;
-the phase number decreases towards zero. If you use
-:ghc-flag:`-dverbose-core2core` you will see the sequence of phase numbers for
-successive runs of the simplifier. In an :pragma:`INLINE` pragma you can
-optionally specify a phase number, thus:
-
--  "``INLINE[k] f``" means: do not inline ``f`` until phase ``k``, but
-   from phase ``k`` onwards be very keen to inline it.
-
--  "``INLINE[~k] f``" means: be very keen to inline ``f`` until phase
-   ``k``, but from phase ``k`` onwards do not inline it.
-
--  "``NOINLINE[k] f``" means: do not inline ``f`` until phase ``k``, but
-   from phase ``k`` onwards be willing to inline it (as if there was no
-   pragma).
-
--  "``NOINLINE[~k] f``" means: be willing to inline ``f`` until phase
-   ``k``, but from phase ``k`` onwards do not inline it.
-
-The same information is summarised here:
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-                               -- Before phase 2     Phase 2 and later
-      {-# INLINE   [2]  f #-}  --      No                 Yes
-      {-# INLINE   [~2] f #-}  --      Yes                No
-      {-# NOINLINE [2]  f #-}  --      No                 Maybe
-      {-# NOINLINE [~2] f #-}  --      Maybe              No
-
-      {-# INLINE   f #-}       --      Yes                Yes
-      {-# NOINLINE f #-}       --      No                 No
-
-By "Maybe" we mean that the usual heuristic inlining rules apply (if the
-function body is small, or it is applied to interesting-looking
-arguments etc). Another way to understand the semantics is this:
-
--  For both :pragma:`INLINE` and :pragma:`NOINLINE`, the phase number says when
-   inlining is allowed at all.
-
--  The :pragma:`INLINE` pragma has the additional effect of making the function
-   body look small, so that when inlining is allowed it is very likely
-   to happen.
-
-The same phase-numbering control is available for :pragma:`RULE <RULES>`\s
-(:ref:`rewrite-rules`).
-
-.. _line-pragma:
-
-``LINE`` pragma
----------------
-
-.. pragma:: LINE ⟨lineno⟩ "⟨file⟩"
-
-    :where: anywhere
-
-    Generated by preprocessors to convey source line numbers of the original
-    source.
-
-This pragma is similar to C's ``#line`` pragma, and is mainly for use in
-automatically generated Haskell code. It lets you specify the line
-number and filename of the original code; for example
-
-::
-
-    {-# LINE 42 "Foo.vhs" #-}
-
-if you'd generated the current file from something called ``Foo.vhs``
-and this line corresponds to line 42 in the original. GHC will adjust
-its error messages to refer to the line/file named in the ``LINE``
-pragma.
-
-``LINE`` pragmas generated from Template Haskell set the file and line
-position for the duration of the splice and are limited to the splice.
-Note that because Template Haskell splices abstract syntax, the file
-positions are not automatically advanced.
-
-.. _column-pragma:
-
-``COLUMN`` pragma
------------------
-
-.. index::
-   single: COLUMN; pragma
-   single: pragma; COLUMN
-
-This is the analogue of the ``LINE`` pragma and is likewise intended for
-use in automatically generated Haskell code. It lets you specify the
-column number of the original code; for example
-
-::
-
-    foo = do
-      {-# COLUMN 42 #-}pure ()
-      pure ()
-
-This adjusts all column numbers immediately after the pragma to start
-at 42.  The presence of this pragma only affects the quality of the
-diagnostics and does not change the syntax of the code itself.
-
-.. _rules:
-
-``RULES`` pragma
-----------------
-
-The :pragma:`RULES` pragma lets you specify rewrite rules. It is described in
-:ref:`rewrite-rules`.
-
-.. _specialize-pragma:
-
-``SPECIALIZE`` pragma
----------------------
-
-.. index::
-   single: SPECIALIZE pragma
-   single: pragma, SPECIALIZE
-   single: overloading, death to
-
-.. pragma:: SPECIALIZE ⟨name⟩ :: ⟨type⟩
-
-    Ask that GHC specialize a polymorphic value to a particular type.
-
-(UK spelling also accepted.) For key overloaded functions, you can
-create extra versions (NB: at the cost of larger code) specialised to particular
-types. Thus, if you have an overloaded function:
-
-::
-
-      hammeredLookup :: Ord key => [(key, value)] -> key -> value
-
-If it is heavily used on lists with ``Widget`` keys, you could
-specialise it as follows:
-
-::
-
-      {-# SPECIALIZE hammeredLookup :: [(Widget, value)] -> Widget -> value #-}
-
--  A ``SPECIALIZE`` pragma for a function can be put anywhere its type
-   signature could be put. Moreover, you can also ``SPECIALIZE`` an
-   *imported* function provided it was given an ``INLINABLE`` pragma at
-   its definition site (:ref:`inlinable-pragma`).
-
--  A ``SPECIALIZE`` has the effect of generating (a) a specialised
-   version of the function and (b) a rewrite rule (see
-   :ref:`rewrite-rules`) that rewrites a call to the un-specialised
-   function into a call to the specialised one. Moreover, given a
-   ``SPECIALIZE`` pragma for a function ``f``, GHC will automatically
-   create specialisations for any type-class-overloaded functions called
-   by ``f``, if they are in the same module as the ``SPECIALIZE``
-   pragma, or if they are ``INLINABLE``; and so on, transitively.
-
--  You can add phase control (:ref:`phase-control`) to the RULE
-   generated by a ``SPECIALIZE`` pragma, just as you can if you write a
-   ``RULE`` directly. For example:
-
-   ::
-
-         {-# SPECIALIZE [0] hammeredLookup :: [(Widget, value)] -> Widget -> value #-}
-
-   generates a specialisation rule that only fires in Phase 0 (the final
-   phase). If you do not specify any phase control in the ``SPECIALIZE``
-   pragma, the phase control is inherited from the inline pragma (if
-   any) of the function. For example:
-
-   ::
-
-         foo :: Num a => a -> a
-         foo = ...blah...
-         {-# NOINLINE [0] foo #-}
-         {-# SPECIALIZE foo :: Int -> Int #-}
-
-   The ``NOINLINE`` pragma tells GHC not to inline ``foo`` until Phase
-   0; and this property is inherited by the specialisation RULE, which
-   will therefore only fire in Phase 0.
-
-   The main reason for using phase control on specialisations is so that
-   you can write optimisation RULES that fire early in the compilation
-   pipeline, and only *then* specialise the calls to the function. If
-   specialisation is done too early, the optimisation rules might fail
-   to fire.
-
--  The type in a ``SPECIALIZE`` pragma can be any type that is less
-   polymorphic than the type of the original function. In concrete
-   terms, if the original function is ``f`` then the pragma
-
-   ::
-
-         {-# SPECIALIZE f :: <type> #-}
-
-   is valid if and only if the definition
-
-   ::
-
-         f_spec :: <type>
-         f_spec = f
-
-   is valid. Here are some examples (where we only give the type
-   signature for the original function, not its code):
-
-   ::
-
-         f :: Eq a => a -> b -> b
-         {-# SPECIALISE f :: Int -> b -> b #-}
-
-         g :: (Eq a, Ix b) => a -> b -> b
-         {-# SPECIALISE g :: (Eq a) => a -> Int -> Int #-}
-
-         h :: Eq a => a -> a -> a
-         {-# SPECIALISE h :: (Eq a) => [a] -> [a] -> [a] #-}
-
-   The last of these examples will generate a RULE with a
-   somewhat-complex left-hand side (try it yourself), so it might not
-   fire very well. If you use this kind of specialisation, let us know
-   how well it works.
-
-.. _specialize-inline:
-
-``SPECIALIZE INLINE``
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-.. pragma:: SPECIALIZE INLINE ⟨name⟩ :: ⟨type⟩
-
-    :where: top-level
-
-A ``SPECIALIZE`` pragma can optionally be followed with a ``INLINE`` or
-``NOINLINE`` pragma, optionally followed by a phase, as described in
-:ref:`inline-noinline-pragma`. The ``INLINE`` pragma affects the
-specialised version of the function (only), and applies even if the
-function is recursive. The motivating example is this: ::
-
-    -- A GADT for arrays with type-indexed representation
-    data Arr e where
-      ArrInt :: !Int -> ByteArray# -> Arr Int
-      ArrPair :: !Int -> Arr e1 -> Arr e2 -> Arr (e1, e2)
-
-    (!:) :: Arr e -> Int -> e
-    {-# SPECIALISE INLINE (!:) :: Arr Int -> Int -> Int #-}
-    {-# SPECIALISE INLINE (!:) :: Arr (a, b) -> Int -> (a, b) #-}
-    (ArrInt _ ba)     !: (I# i) = I# (indexIntArray# ba i)
-    (ArrPair _ a1 a2) !: i      = (a1 !: i, a2 !: i)
-
-Here, ``(!:)`` is a recursive function that indexes arrays of type
-``Arr e``. Consider a call to ``(!:)`` at type ``(Int,Int)``. The second
-specialisation will fire, and the specialised function will be inlined.
-It has two calls to ``(!:)``, both at type ``Int``. Both these calls
-fire the first specialisation, whose body is also inlined. The result is
-a type-based unrolling of the indexing function.
-
-You can add explicit phase control (:ref:`phase-control`) to
-``SPECIALISE INLINE`` pragma, just like on an :pragma:`INLINE` pragma; if
-you do so, the same phase is used for the rewrite rule and the INLINE control
-of the specialised function.
-
-.. warning:: You can make GHC diverge by using ``SPECIALISE INLINE`` on an
-             ordinarily-recursive function.
-
-``SPECIALIZE`` for imported functions
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-Generally, you can only give a :pragma:`SPECIALIZE` pragma for a function
-defined in the same module. However if a function ``f`` is given an
-:pragma:`INLINABLE` pragma at its definition site, then it can subsequently be
-specialised by importing modules (see :ref:`inlinable-pragma`). For example ::
-
-    module Map( lookup, blah blah ) where
-      lookup :: Ord key => [(key,a)] -> key -> Maybe a
-      lookup = ...
-      {-# INLINABLE lookup #-}
-
-    module Client where
-      import Map( lookup )
-
-      data T = T1 | T2 deriving( Eq, Ord )
-      {-# SPECIALISE lookup :: [(T,a)] -> T -> Maybe a
-
-Here, ``lookup`` is declared :pragma:`INLINABLE`, but it cannot be specialised
-for type ``T`` at its definition site, because that type does not exist
-yet. Instead a client module can define ``T`` and then specialise
-``lookup`` at that type.
-
-Moreover, every module that imports ``Client`` (or imports a module that
-imports ``Client``, transitively) will "see", and make use of, the
-specialised version of ``lookup``. You don't need to put a
-:pragma:`SPECIALIZE` pragma in every module.
-
-Moreover you often don't even need the :pragma:`SPECIALIZE` pragma in the
-first place. When compiling a module ``M``, GHC's optimiser (when given the
-:ghc-flag:`-O` flag) automatically considers each top-level overloaded function declared
-in ``M``, and specialises it for the different types at which it is called in
-``M``. The optimiser *also* considers each *imported* :pragma:`INLINABLE`
-overloaded function, and specialises it for the different types at which
-it is called in ``M``. So in our example, it would be enough for ``lookup``
-to be called at type ``T``:
-
-::
-
-    module Client where
-      import Map( lookup )
-
-      data T = T1 | T2 deriving( Eq, Ord )
-
-      findT1 :: [(T,a)] -> Maybe a
-      findT1 m = lookup m T1   -- A call of lookup at type T
-
-However, sometimes there are no such calls, in which case the pragma can
-be useful.
-
-.. _specialize-instance-pragma:
-
-``SPECIALIZE`` instance pragma
-------------------------------
-
-.. index::
-   single: instance, specializing
-   single: overloading, death to
-
-.. pragma:: SPECIALIZE instance ⟨instance head⟩
-
-   :where: instance body
-
-Same idea, except for instance declarations. For example:
-
-::
-
-    instance (Eq a) => Eq (Foo a) where {
-       {-# SPECIALIZE instance Eq (Foo [(Int, Bar)]) #-}
-       ... usual stuff ...
-     }
-
-The pragma must occur inside the ``where`` part of the instance
-declaration.
-
-.. _unpack-pragma:
-
-``UNPACK`` pragma
------------------
-
-.. pragma:: UNPACK
-
-    :where: data constructor field
-
-    Instructs the compiler to unpack the contents of a constructor field into
-    the constructor itself.
-
-The ``UNPACK`` indicates to the compiler that it should unpack the
-contents of a constructor field into the constructor itself, removing a
-level of indirection. For example: ::
-
-    data T = T {-# UNPACK #-} !Float
-               {-# UNPACK #-} !Float
-
-will create a constructor ``T`` containing two unboxed floats. This may
-not always be an optimisation: if the ``T`` constructor is scrutinised
-and the floats passed to a non-strict function for example, they will
-have to be reboxed (this is done automatically by the compiler).
-
-Unpacking constructor fields should only be used in conjunction with
-:ghc-flag:`-O` [1]_, in order to expose unfoldings to the compiler so the
-reboxing can be removed as often as possible. For example: ::
-
-    f :: T -> Float
-    f (T f1 f2) = f1 + f2
-
-The compiler will avoid reboxing ``f1`` and ``f2`` by inlining ``+`` on
-floats, but only when :ghc-flag:`-O` is on.
-
-Any single-constructor data is eligible for unpacking; for example ::
-
-    data T = T {-# UNPACK #-} !(Int,Int)
-
-will store the two ``Int``\ s directly in the ``T`` constructor, by
-flattening the pair. Multi-level unpacking is also supported: ::
-
-    data T = T {-# UNPACK #-} !S
-    data S = S {-# UNPACK #-} !Int {-# UNPACK #-} !Int
-
-will store two unboxed ``Int#``\ s directly in the ``T`` constructor.
-The unpacker can see through newtypes, too.
-
-See also the :ghc-flag:`-funbox-strict-fields` flag, which essentially has the
-effect of adding ``{-# UNPACK #-}`` to every strict constructor field.
-
-.. [1]
-   In fact, :pragma:`UNPACK` has no effect without :ghc-flag:`-O`, for technical
-   reasons (see :ghc-ticket:`5252`).
-
-.. _nounpack-pragma:
-
-``NOUNPACK`` pragma
--------------------
-
-.. pragma:: NOUNPACK
-
-    :where: top-level
-
-    Instructs the compiler not to unpack a constructor field.
-
-The ``NOUNPACK`` pragma indicates to the compiler that it should not
-unpack the contents of a constructor field. Example: ::
-
-    data T = T {-# NOUNPACK #-} !(Int,Int)
-
-Even with the flags :ghc-flag:`-funbox-strict-fields` and :ghc-flag:`-O`, the
-field of the constructor ``T`` is not unpacked.
-
-.. _source-pragma:
-
-``SOURCE`` pragma
------------------
-
-.. pragma:: SOURCE
-
-    :where: after ``import`` statement
-
-    Import a module by ``hs-boot`` file to break a module loop.
-
-The ``{-# SOURCE #-}`` pragma is used only in ``import`` declarations,
-to break a module loop. It is described in detail in
-:ref:`mutual-recursion`.
-
-.. _complete-pragma:
-
-``COMPLETE`` pragmas
---------------------
-
-.. pragma:: COMPLETE
-
-    :where: at top level
-
-    Specify the set of constructors or pattern synonyms which constitute a total
-    match.
-
-The ``COMPLETE`` pragma is used to inform the pattern match checker that a
-certain set of patterns is complete and that any function which matches
-on all the specified patterns is total.
-
-The most common usage of ``COMPLETE`` pragmas is with
-:ref:`pattern-synonyms`.
-On its own, the checker is very naive and assumes that any match involving
-a pattern synonym will fail. As a result, any pattern match on a
-pattern synonym is regarded as
-incomplete unless the user adds a catch-all case.
-
-For example, the data types ``2 * A`` and ``A + A`` are isomorphic but some
-computations are more naturally expressed in terms of one or the other. To
-get the best of both worlds, we can choose one as our implementation and then
-provide a set of pattern synonyms so that users can use the other representation
-if they desire. We can then specify a ``COMPLETE`` pragma in order to
-inform the pattern match checker that a function which matches on both ``LeftChoice``
-and ``RightChoice`` is total. ::
-
-    data Choice a = Choice Bool a
-
-    pattern LeftChoice :: a -> Choice a
-    pattern LeftChoice a = Choice False a
-
-    pattern RightChoice :: a -> Choice a
-    pattern RightChoice a = Choice True a
-
-    {-# COMPLETE LeftChoice, RightChoice #-}
-
-    foo :: Choice Int -> Int
-    foo (LeftChoice n) = n * 2
-    foo (RightChoice n) = n - 2
-
-``COMPLETE`` pragmas are only used by the pattern match checker. If a function
-definition matches on all the constructors specified in the pragma then the
-compiler will produce no warning.
-
-``COMPLETE`` pragmas can contain any data constructors or pattern
-synonyms which are in scope, but must mention at least one data
-constructor or pattern synonym defined in the same module.
-``COMPLETE`` pragmas may only appear at the top level of a module.
-Once defined, they are automatically imported and exported from
-modules. ``COMPLETE`` pragmas should be thought of as asserting a
-universal truth about a set of patterns and as a result, should not be
-used to silence context specific incomplete match warnings.
-
-When specifying a ``COMPLETE`` pragma, the result types of all patterns must
-be consistent with each other. This is a sanity check as it would be impossible
-to match on all the patterns if the types were inconsistent.
-
-The result type must also be unambiguous. Usually this can be inferred but
-when all the pattern synonyms in a group are polymorphic in the constructor
-the user must provide a type signature. ::
-
-    class LL f where
-      go :: f a -> ()
-
-    instance LL [] where
-      go _ = ()
-
-    pattern T :: LL f => f a
-    pattern T <- (go -> ())
-
-    {-# COMPLETE T :: [] #-}
-
-    -- No warning
-    foo :: [a] -> Int
-    foo T = 5
-
-.. _overlap-pragma:
-
-``OVERLAPPING``, ``OVERLAPPABLE``, ``OVERLAPS``, and ``INCOHERENT`` pragmas
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-.. index::
-   single: OVERLAPPING
-   single: pragma; OVERLAPPING
-   single: OVERLAPPABLE
-   single: pragma; OVERLAPPABLE
-   single: OVERLAPS
-   single: pragma; OVERLAPS
-   single: INCOHERENT
-   single: pragma; INCOHERENT
-
-.. pragma:: OVERLAPPING
-.. pragma:: OVERLAPPABLE
-.. pragma:: OVERLAPS
-.. pragma:: INCOHERENT
-
-    :where: on instance head
-
-The pragmas ``OVERLAPPING``, ``OVERLAPPABLE``, ``OVERLAPS``,
-``INCOHERENT`` are used to specify the overlap behavior for individual
-instances, as described in Section :ref:`instance-overlap`. The pragmas
-are written immediately after the ``instance`` keyword, like this:
-
-::
-
-    instance {-# OVERLAPPING #-} C t where ...
-
-.. _rewrite-rules:
-
-Rewrite rules
-=============
-
-.. index::
-   single: rewrite rules
-
-.. pragma:: RULES "⟨name⟩" forall ⟨binder⟩ ... . ⟨expr⟩ = ⟨expr⟩ ...
-
-    :where: top-level
-
-    Define a rewrite rule to be used to optimize a source program.
-
-The programmer can specify rewrite rules as part of the source program
-(in a pragma). Here is an example: ::
-
-      {-# RULES
-            "map/map"    forall f g xs.  map f (map g xs) = map (f.g) xs
-        #-}
-
-Use the debug flag :ghc-flag:`-ddump-simpl-stats` to see what rules fired. If
-you need more information, then :ghc-flag:`-ddump-rule-firings` shows you each
-individual rule firing and :ghc-flag:`-ddump-rule-rewrites` also shows what the
-code looks like before and after the rewrite.
-
-.. ghc-flag:: -fenable-rewrite-rules
-    :shortdesc: Switch on all rewrite rules (including rules generated by
-        automatic specialisation of overloaded functions). Implied by
-        :ghc-flag:`-O`.
-    :type: dynamic
-    :reverse: -fno-enable-rewrite-rules
-    :category: optimization
-
-    Allow the compiler to apply rewrite rules to the source program.
-
-Syntax
-------
-
-From a syntactic point of view:
-
--  There may be zero or more rules in a :pragma:`RULES` pragma, separated by
-   semicolons (which may be generated by the layout rule).
-
--  The layout rule applies in a pragma. Currently no new indentation
-   level is set, so if you put several rules in single ``RULES`` pragma and
-   wish to use layout to separate them, you must lay out the starting in
-   the same column as the enclosing definitions. ::
-
-         {-# RULES
-               "map/map"    forall f g xs.  map f (map g xs) = map (f.g) xs
-               "map/append" forall f xs ys. map f (xs ++ ys) = map f xs ++ map f ys
-           #-}
-
-   Furthermore, the closing ``#-}`` should start in a column to the
-   right of the opening ``{-#``.
-
--  Each rule has a name, enclosed in double quotes. The name itself has
-   no significance at all. It is only used when reporting how many times
-   the rule fired.
-
--  A rule may optionally have a phase-control number (see
-   :ref:`phase-control`), immediately after the name of the rule. Thus: ::
-
-         {-# RULES
-               "map/map" [2]  forall f g xs. map f (map g xs) = map (f.g) xs
-           #-}
-
-   The ``[2]`` means that the rule is active in Phase 2 and subsequent
-   phases. The inverse notation ``[~2]`` is also accepted, meaning that
-   the rule is active up to, but not including, Phase 2.
-
-   Rules support the special phase-control notation ``[~]``, which means
-   the rule is never active. This feature supports plugins (see
-   :ref:`compiler-plugins`), by making it possible to define a RULE that
-   is never run by GHC, but is nevertheless parsed, typechecked etc, so
-   that it is available to the plugin.
-
--  Each (term) variable mentioned in a rule must either be in scope (e.g.
-   ``map``), or bound by the ``forall`` (e.g. ``f``, ``g``, ``xs``). The
-   variables bound by the ``forall`` are called the *pattern* variables.
-   They are separated by spaces, just like in a type ``forall``.
-
--  A pattern variable may optionally have a type signature. If the type
-   of the pattern variable is polymorphic, it *must* have a type
-   signature. For example, here is the ``foldr/build`` rule: ::
-
-       "fold/build"  forall k z (g::forall b. (a->b->b) -> b -> b) .
-                     foldr k z (build g) = g k z
-
-   Since ``g`` has a polymorphic type, it must have a type signature.
-
--  If :extension:`ExplicitForAll` is enabled, type/kind variables can also be
-   explicitly bound. For example: ::
-
-       {-# RULES "id" forall a. forall (x :: a). id @a x = x #-}
-
-   When a type-level explicit ``forall`` is present, each type/kind variable
-   mentioned must now also be either in scope or bound by the ``forall``. In
-   particular, unlike some other places in Haskell, this means free kind
-   variables will not be implicitly bound. For example: ::
-
-       "this_is_bad" forall (c :: k). forall (x :: Proxy c) ...
-       "this_is_ok"  forall k (c :: k). forall (x :: Proxy c) ...
-
-   When bound type/kind variables are needed, both foralls must always be
-   included, though if no pattern variables are needed, the second can be left
-   empty. For example: ::
-
-       {-# RULES "map/id" forall a. forall. map (id @a) = id @[a] #-}
-
--  The left hand side of a rule must consist of a top-level variable
-   applied to arbitrary expressions. For example, this is *not* OK: ::
-
-       "wrong1"   forall e1 e2.  case True of { True -> e1; False -> e2 } = e1
-       "wrong2"   forall f.      f True = True
-       "wrong3"   forall x.      Just x = Nothing
-
-   In ``"wrong1"``, the LHS is not an application; in ``"wrong2"``, the
-   LHS has a pattern variable in the head. In ``"wrong3"``, the LHS consists
-   of a *constructor*, rather than a *variable*, applied to an argument.
-
--  A rule does not need to be in the same module as (any of) the
-   variables it mentions, though of course they need to be in scope.
-
--  All rules are implicitly exported from the module, and are therefore
-   in force in any module that imports the module that defined the rule,
-   directly or indirectly. (That is, if A imports B, which imports C,
-   then C's rules are in force when compiling A.) The situation is very
-   similar to that for instance declarations.
-
--  Inside a :pragma:`RULES` "``forall``" is treated as a keyword, regardless of any
-   other flag settings. Furthermore, inside a :pragma:`RULES`, the language
-   extension :extension:`ScopedTypeVariables` is automatically enabled; see
-   :ref:`scoped-type-variables`.
-
--  Like other pragmas, :pragma:`RULES` pragmas are always checked for scope errors,
-   and are typechecked. Typechecking means that the LHS and RHS of a
-   rule are typechecked, and must have the same type. However, rules are
-   only *enabled* if the :ghc-flag:`-fenable-rewrite-rules` flag is on (see
-   :ref:`rule-semantics`).
-
-.. _rule-semantics:
-
-Semantics
----------
-
-From a semantic point of view:
-
--  Rules are enabled (that is, used during optimisation) by the
-   :ghc-flag:`-fenable-rewrite-rules` flag. This flag is implied by
-   :ghc-flag:`-O`, and may be switched off (as usual) by
-   :ghc-flag:`-fno-enable-rewrite-rules <-fenable-rewrite-rules>`. (NB: enabling
-   :ghc-flag:`-fenable-rewrite-rules` without :ghc-flag:`-O` may not do what you
-   expect, though, because without :ghc-flag:`-O` GHC ignores all optimisation
-   information in interface files; see :ghc-flag:`-fignore-interface-pragmas`).
-   Note that :ghc-flag:`-fenable-rewrite-rules` is an
-   *optimisation* flag, and has no effect on parsing or typechecking.
-
--  Rules are regarded as left-to-right rewrite rules. When GHC finds an
-   expression that is a substitution instance of the LHS of a rule, it
-   replaces the expression by the (appropriately-substituted) RHS. By "a
-   substitution instance" we mean that the LHS can be made equal to the
-   expression by substituting for the pattern variables.
-
--  GHC makes absolutely no attempt to verify that the LHS and RHS of a
-   rule have the same meaning. That is undecidable in general, and
-   infeasible in most interesting cases. The responsibility is entirely
-   the programmer's!
-
--  GHC makes no attempt to make sure that the rules are confluent or
-   terminating. For example: ::
-
-         "loop"        forall x y.  f x y = f y x
-
-   This rule will cause the compiler to go into an infinite loop.
-
--  If more than one rule matches a call, GHC will choose one arbitrarily
-   to apply.
-
--  GHC currently uses a very simple, syntactic, matching algorithm for
-   matching a rule LHS with an expression. It seeks a substitution which
-   makes the LHS and expression syntactically equal modulo alpha
-   conversion. The pattern (rule), but not the expression, is
-   eta-expanded if necessary. (Eta-expanding the expression can lead to
-   laziness bugs.) But not beta conversion (that's called higher-order
-   matching).
-
-   Matching is carried out on GHC's intermediate language, which
-   includes type abstractions and applications. So a rule only matches
-   if the types match too. See :ref:`rule-spec` below.
-
--  GHC keeps trying to apply the rules as it optimises the program. For
-   example, consider: ::
-
-         let s = map f
-             t = map g
-         in
-         s (t xs)
-
-   The expression ``s (t xs)`` does not match the rule ``"map/map"``,
-   but GHC will substitute for ``s`` and ``t``, giving an expression
-   which does match. If ``s`` or ``t`` was (a) used more than once, and
-   (b) large or a redex, then it would not be substituted, and the rule
-   would not fire.
-
-.. _rules-inline:
-
-How rules interact with ``INLINE``/``NOINLINE`` pragmas
--------------------------------------------------------
-
-Ordinary inlining happens at the same time as rule rewriting, which may
-lead to unexpected results. Consider this (artificial) example ::
-
-    f x = x
-    g y = f y
-    h z = g True
-
-    {-# RULES "f" f True = False #-}
-
-Since ``f``\'s right-hand side is small, it is inlined into ``g``, to
-give ::
-
-    g y = y
-
-Now ``g`` is inlined into ``h``, but ``f``\'s RULE has no chance to
-fire. If instead GHC had first inlined ``g`` into ``h`` then there would have
-been a better chance that ``f``\'s :pragma:`RULES` might fire.
-
-The way to get predictable behaviour is to use a :pragma:`NOINLINE` pragma, or an
-``INLINE[⟨phase⟩]`` pragma, on ``f``, to ensure that it is not inlined until
-its :pragma:`RULES` have had a chance to fire. The warning flag
-:ghc-flag:`-Winline-rule-shadowing` (see :ref:`options-sanity`) warns about
-this situation.
-
-.. _conlike:
-
-How rules interact with ``CONLIKE`` pragmas
--------------------------------------------
-
-GHC is very cautious about duplicating work. For example, consider ::
-
-    f k z xs = let xs = build g
-               in ...(foldr k z xs)...sum xs...
-    {-# RULES "foldr/build" forall k z g. foldr k z (build g) = g k z #-}
-
-Since ``xs`` is used twice, GHC does not fire the foldr/build rule.
-Rightly so, because it might take a lot of work to compute ``xs``, which
-would be duplicated if the rule fired.
-
-Sometimes, however, this approach is over-cautious, and we *do* want the
-rule to fire, even though doing so would duplicate redex. There is no
-way that GHC can work out when this is a good idea, so we provide the
-``CONLIKE`` pragma to declare it, thus: ::
-
-    {-# INLINE CONLIKE [1] f #-}
-    f x = blah
-
-``CONLIKE`` is a modifier to an ``INLINE`` or ``NOINLINE`` pragma. It specifies that
-an application of ``f`` to one argument (in general, the number of arguments
-to the left of the ``=`` sign) should be considered cheap enough to
-duplicate, if such a duplication would make rule fire. (The name
-"CONLIKE" is short for "constructor-like", because constructors
-certainly have such a property.) The :pragma:`CONLIKE` pragma is a modifier to
-:pragma:`INLINE`/:pragma:`NOINLINE` because it really only makes sense to match
-``f`` on the LHS of a rule if you are sure that ``f`` is not going to be inlined
-before the rule has a chance to fire.
-
-.. _rules-class-methods:
-
-How rules interact with class methods
--------------------------------------
-
-Giving a RULE for a class method is a bad idea: ::
-
-    class C a where
-      op :: a -> a -> a
-
-    instance C Bool where
-      op x y = ...rhs for op at Bool...
-
-    {-# RULES "f" op True y = False #-}
-
-In this example, ``op`` is not an ordinary top-level function; it is a
-class method. GHC rapidly rewrites any occurrences of
-``op``\-used-at-type-Bool to a specialised function, say ``opBool``,
-where ::
-
-    opBool :: Bool -> Bool -> Bool
-    opBool x y = ..rhs for op at Bool...
-
-So the RULE never has a chance to fire, for just the same reasons as in
-:ref:`rules-inline`.
-
-The solution is to define the instance-specific function yourself, with
-a pragma to prevent it being inlined too early, and give a RULE for it: ::
-
-    instance C Bool where
-      op = opBool
-
-    opBool :: Bool -> Bool -> Bool
-    {-# NOINLINE [1] opBool #-}
-    opBool x y = ..rhs for op at Bool...
-
-    {-# RULES "f" opBool True y = False #-}
-
-If you want a RULE that truly applies to the overloaded class method,
-the only way to do it is like this: ::
-
-    class C a where
-      op_c :: a -> a -> a
-
-    op :: C a => a -> a -> a
-    {-# NOINLINE [1] op #-}
-    op = op_c
-
-    {-# RULES "reassociate" op (op x y) z = op x (op y z) #-}
-
-Now the inlining of ``op`` is delayed until the rule has a chance to
-fire. The down-side is that instance declarations must define ``op_c``,
-but all other uses should go via ``op``.
-
-List fusion
------------
-
-The RULES mechanism is used to implement fusion (deforestation) of
-common list functions. If a "good consumer" consumes an intermediate
-list constructed by a "good producer", the intermediate list should be
-eliminated entirely.
-
-The following are good producers:
-
--  List comprehensions
-
--  Enumerations of ``Int``, ``Integer`` and ``Char`` (e.g.
-   ``['a'..'z']``).
-
--  Explicit lists (e.g. ``[True, False]``)
-
--  The cons constructor (e.g ``3:4:[]``)
-
--  ``++``
-
--  ``map``
-
--  ``take``, ``filter``
-
--  ``iterate``, ``repeat``
-
--  ``zip``, ``zipWith``
-
-The following are good consumers:
-
--  List comprehensions
-
--  ``array`` (on its second argument)
-
--  ``++`` (on its first argument)
-
--  ``foldr``
-
--  ``map``
-
--  ``take``, ``filter``
-
--  ``concat``
-
--  ``unzip``, ``unzip2``, ``unzip3``, ``unzip4``
-
--  ``zip``, ``zipWith`` (but on one argument only; if both are good
-   producers, ``zip`` will fuse with one but not the other)
-
--  ``partition``
-
--  ``head``
-
--  ``and``, ``or``, ``any``, ``all``
-
--  ``sequence_``
-
--  ``msum``
-
-So, for example, the following should generate no intermediate lists: ::
-
-    array (1,10) [(i,i*i) | i <- map (+ 1) [0..9]]
-
-This list could readily be extended; if there are Prelude functions that
-you use a lot which are not included, please tell us.
-
-If you want to write your own good consumers or producers, look at the
-Prelude definitions of the above functions to see how to do so.
-
-.. _rule-spec:
-
-Specialisation
---------------
-
-Rewrite rules can be used to get the same effect as a feature present in
-earlier versions of GHC. For example, suppose that: ::
-
-    genericLookup :: Ord a => Table a b   -> a   -> b
-    intLookup     ::          Table Int b -> Int -> b
-
-where ``intLookup`` is an implementation of ``genericLookup`` that works
-very fast for keys of type ``Int``. You might wish to tell GHC to use
-``intLookup`` instead of ``genericLookup`` whenever the latter was
-called with type ``Table Int b -> Int -> b``. It used to be possible to
-write ::
-
-    {-# SPECIALIZE genericLookup :: Table Int b -> Int -> b = intLookup #-}
-
-This feature is no longer in GHC, but rewrite rules let you do the same
-thing: ::
-
-    {-# RULES "genericLookup/Int" genericLookup = intLookup #-}
-
-This slightly odd-looking rule instructs GHC to replace
-``genericLookup`` by ``intLookup`` *whenever the types match*. What is
-more, this rule does not need to be in the same file as
-``genericLookup``, unlike the ``SPECIALIZE`` pragmas which currently do
-(so that they have an original definition available to specialise).
-
-It is *Your Responsibility* to make sure that ``intLookup`` really
-behaves as a specialised version of ``genericLookup``!!!
-
-An example in which using ``RULES`` for specialisation will Win Big: ::
-
-    toDouble :: Real a => a -> Double
-    toDouble = fromRational . toRational
-
-    {-# RULES "toDouble/Int" toDouble = i2d #-}
-    i2d (I# i) = D# (int2Double# i) -- uses Glasgow prim-op directly
-
-The ``i2d`` function is virtually one machine instruction; the default
-conversion—via an intermediate ``Rational``\-is obscenely expensive by
-comparison.
-
-.. _controlling-rules:
-
-Controlling what's going on in rewrite rules
---------------------------------------------
-
--  Use :ghc-flag:`-ddump-rules` to see the rules that are defined *in this
-   module*. This includes rules generated by the specialisation pass,
-   but excludes rules imported from other modules.
-
--  Use :ghc-flag:`-ddump-simpl-stats` to see what rules are being fired. If you
-   add :ghc-flag:`-dppr-debug` you get a more detailed listing.
-
--  Use :ghc-flag:`-ddump-rule-firings` or :ghc-flag:`-ddump-rule-rewrites` to see in
-   great detail what rules are being fired. If you add :ghc-flag:`-dppr-debug`
-   you get a still more detailed listing.
-
--  The definition of (say) ``build`` in ``GHC/Base.hs`` looks like
-   this: ::
-
-               build   :: forall a. (forall b. (a -> b -> b) -> b -> b) -> [a]
-               {-# INLINE build #-}
-               build g = g (:) []
-
-   Notice the :pragma:`INLINE`! That prevents ``(:)`` from being inlined when
-   compiling ``PrelBase``, so that an importing module will “see” the
-   ``(:)``, and can match it on the LHS of a rule. ``INLINE`` prevents
-   any inlining happening in the RHS of the ``INLINE`` thing. I regret
-   the delicacy of this.
-
--  In ``libraries/base/GHC/Base.hs`` look at the rules for ``map`` to
-   see how to write rules that will do fusion and yet give an efficient
-   program even if fusion doesn't happen. More rules in
-   ``GHC/List.hs``.
-
-.. _special-ids:
-
-Special built-in functions
-==========================
-
-GHC has a few built-in functions with special behaviour. In particular:
-
--  :base-ref:`GHC.Exts.inline` allows control over inlining on a per-call-site basis.
-
--  :base-ref:`GHC.Exts.lazy` restrains the strictness analyser.
-
--  :base-ref:`GHC.Exts.oneShot` gives a hint to the compiler about how often a
-   function is being called.
-
-.. _generic-classes:
-
-Generic classes
-===============
-
-GHC used to have an implementation of generic classes as defined in the
-paper "Derivable type classes", Ralf Hinze and Simon Peyton Jones,
-Haskell Workshop, Montreal Sept 2000, pp. 94-105. These have been removed
-and replaced by the more general `support for generic
-programming <#generic-programming>`__.
-
-.. _generic-programming:
-
-Generic programming
-===================
-
-Using a combination of :extension:`DeriveGeneric`,
-:extension:`DefaultSignatures`, and :extension:`DeriveAnyClass`, you can
-easily do datatype-generic programming using the :base-ref:`GHC.Generics.`
-framework. This section gives a very brief overview of how to do it.
-
-Generic programming support in GHC allows defining classes with methods
-that do not need a user specification when instantiating: the method
-body is automatically derived by GHC. This is similar to what happens
-for standard classes such as ``Read`` and ``Show``, for instance, but
-now for user-defined classes.
-
-Deriving representations
-------------------------
-
-The first thing we need is generic representations. The ``GHC.Generics``
-module defines a couple of primitive types that are used to represent
-Haskell datatypes: ::
-
-    -- | Unit: used for constructors without arguments
-    data U1 p = U1
-
-    -- | Constants, additional parameters and recursion of kind Type
-    newtype K1 i c p = K1 { unK1 :: c }
-
-    -- | Meta-information (constructor names, etc.)
-    newtype M1 i c f p = M1 { unM1 :: f p }
-
-    -- | Sums: encode choice between constructors
-    infixr 5 :+:
-    data (:+:) f g p = L1 (f p) | R1 (g p)
-
-    -- | Products: encode multiple arguments to constructors
-    infixr 6 :*:
-    data (:*:) f g p = f p :*: g p
-
-The ``Generic`` and ``Generic1`` classes mediate between user-defined
-datatypes and their internal representation as a sum-of-products: ::
-
-    class Generic a where
-      -- Encode the representation of a user datatype
-      type Rep a :: Type -> Type
-      -- Convert from the datatype to its representation
-      from  :: a -> (Rep a) x
-      -- Convert from the representation to the datatype
-      to    :: (Rep a) x -> a
-
-    class Generic1 (f :: k -> Type) where
-      type Rep1 f :: k -> Type
-
-      from1  :: f a -> Rep1 f a
-      to1    :: Rep1 f a -> f a
-
-``Generic1`` is used for functions that can only be defined over type
-containers, such as ``map``. Note that ``Generic1`` ranges over types of kind
-``Type -> Type`` by default, but if the :extension:`PolyKinds` extension is
-enabled, then it can range of types of kind ``k -> Type``, for any kind ``k``.
-
-.. extension:: DeriveGeneric
-    :shortdesc: Enable deriving for the Generic class.
-
-    :since: 7.2.1
-
-    Allow automatic deriving of instances for the ``Generic`` typeclass.
-
-
-Instances of these classes can be derived by GHC with the
-:extension:`DeriveGeneric` extension, and are necessary to be able to define
-generic instances automatically.
-
-For example, a user-defined datatype of trees ::
-
-    data UserTree a = Node a (UserTree a) (UserTree a) | Leaf
-
-in a ``Main`` module in a package named ``foo`` will get the following
-representation: ::
-
-    instance Generic (UserTree a) where
-      -- Representation type
-      type Rep (UserTree a) =
-        M1 D ('MetaData "UserTree" "Main" "package-name" 'False) (
-              M1 C ('MetaCons "Node" 'PrefixI 'False) (
-                    M1 S ('MetaSel 'Nothing
-                                   'NoSourceUnpackedness
-                                   'NoSourceStrictness
-                                   'DecidedLazy)
-                         (K1 R a)
-                :*: M1 S ('MetaSel 'Nothing
-                                   'NoSourceUnpackedness
-                                   'NoSourceStrictness
-                                   'DecidedLazy)
-                         (K1 R (UserTree a))
-                :*: M1 S ('MetaSel 'Nothing
-                                   'NoSourceUnpackedness
-                                   'NoSourceStrictness
-                                   'DecidedLazy)
-                         (K1 R (UserTree a)))
-          :+: M1 C ('MetaCons "Leaf" 'PrefixI 'False) U1)
-
-      -- Conversion functions
-      from (Node x l r) = M1 (L1 (M1 (M1 (K1 x) :*: M1 (K1 l) :*: M1 (K1 r))))
-      from Leaf         = M1 (R1 (M1 U1))
-      to (M1 (L1 (M1 (M1 (K1 x) :*: M1 (K1 l) :*: M1 (K1 r))))) = Node x l r
-      to (M1 (R1 (M1 U1)))                                      = Leaf
-
-This representation is generated automatically if a ``deriving Generic``
-clause is attached to the datatype. `Standalone
-deriving <#stand-alone-deriving>`__ can also be used.
-
-Writing generic functions
--------------------------
-
-A generic function is defined by creating a class and giving instances
-for each of the representation types of ``GHC.Generics``. As an example
-we show generic serialization: ::
-
-    data Bin = O | I
-
-    class GSerialize f where
-      gput :: f a -> [Bin]
-
-    instance GSerialize U1 where
-      gput U1 = []
-
-    instance (GSerialize a, GSerialize b) => GSerialize (a :*: b) where
-      gput (x :*: y) = gput x ++ gput y
-
-    instance (GSerialize a, GSerialize b) => GSerialize (a :+: b) where
-      gput (L1 x) = O : gput x
-      gput (R1 x) = I : gput x
-
-    instance (GSerialize a) => GSerialize (M1 i c a) where
-      gput (M1 x) = gput x
-
-    instance (Serialize a) => GSerialize (K1 i a) where
-      gput (K1 x) = put x
-
-A caveat: this encoding strategy may not be reliable across different versions
-of GHC. When deriving a ``Generic`` instance is free to choose any nesting of
-``:+:`` and ``:*:`` it chooses, so if GHC chooses ``(a :+: b) :+: c``, then the
-encoding for ``a`` would be ``[O, O]``, ``b`` would be ``[O, I]``, and ``c``
-would be ``[I]``. However, if GHC chooses ``a :+: (b :+: c)``, then the
-encoding for ``a`` would be ``[O]``, ``b`` would be ``[I, O]``, and ``c`` would
-be ``[I, I]``. (In practice, the current implementation tries to produce a
-more-or-less balanced nesting of ``:+:`` and ``:*:`` so that the traversal of
-the structure of the datatype from the root to a particular component can be
-performed in logarithmic rather than linear time.)
-
-Typically this ``GSerialize`` class will not be exported, as it only makes
-sense to have instances for the representation types.
-
-Unlifted representation types
------------------------------
-
-The data family ``URec`` is provided to enable generic programming over
-datatypes with certain unlifted arguments. There are six instances corresponding
-to common unlifted types: ::
-
-    data family URec a p
-
-    data instance URec (Ptr ()) p = UAddr   { uAddr#   :: Addr#   }
-    data instance URec Char     p = UChar   { uChar#   :: Char#   }
-    data instance URec Double   p = UDouble { uDouble# :: Double# }
-    data instance URec Int      p = UInt    { uInt#    :: Int#    }
-    data instance URec Float    p = UFloat  { uFloat#  :: Float#  }
-    data instance URec Word     p = UWord   { uWord#   :: Word#   }
-
-Six type synonyms are provided for convenience: ::
-
-    type UAddr   = URec (Ptr ())
-    type UChar   = URec Char
-    type UDouble = URec Double
-    type UFloat  = URec Float
-    type UInt    = URec Int
-    type UWord   = URec Word
-
-As an example, this data declaration: ::
-
-    data IntHash = IntHash Int#
-      deriving Generic
-
-results in the following ``Generic`` instance: ::
-
-    instance 'Generic' IntHash where
-      type 'Rep' IntHash =
-        'D1' ('MetaData "IntHash" "Main" "package-name" 'False)
-          ('C1' ('MetaCons "IntHash" 'PrefixI 'False)
-            ('S1' ('MetaSel 'Nothing
-                            'NoSourceUnpackedness
-                            'NoSourceStrictness
-                            'DecidedLazy)
-                  'UInt'))
-
-A user could provide, for example, a ``GSerialize UInt`` instance so that a
-``Serialize IntHash`` instance could be easily defined in terms of
-``GSerialize``.
-
-Generic defaults
-----------------
-
-The only thing left to do now is to define a "front-end" class, which is
-exposed to the user: ::
-
-    class Serialize a where
-      put :: a -> [Bin]
-
-      default put :: (Generic a, GSerialize (Rep a)) => a -> [Bin]
-      put = gput . from
-
-Here we use a `default signature <#class-default-signatures>`__ to
-specify that the user does not have to provide an implementation for
-``put``, as long as there is a ``Generic`` instance for the type to
-instantiate. For the ``UserTree`` type, for instance, the user can just
-write: ::
-
-    instance (Serialize a) => Serialize (UserTree a)
-
-The default method for ``put`` is then used, corresponding to the
-generic implementation of serialization. If you are using
-:extension:`DeriveAnyClass`, the same instance is generated by simply attaching
-a ``deriving Serialize`` clause to the ``UserTree`` datatype
-declaration. For more examples of generic functions please refer to the
-`generic-deriving <http://hackage.haskell.org/package/generic-deriving>`__
-package on Hackage.
-
-More information
-----------------
-
-For more details please refer to the `Haskell Wiki
-page <http://www.haskell.org/haskellwiki/GHC.Generics>`__ or the
-original paper [Generics2010]_.
-
-.. [Generics2010] Jose Pedro Magalhaes, Atze Dijkstra, Johan Jeuring, and Andres Loeh.
-   `A generic deriving mechanism for Haskell
-   <http://dreixel.net/research/pdf/gdmh.pdf>`__. Proceedings of
-   the third ACM Haskell symposium on Haskell (Haskell'2010), pp. 37-48,
-   ACM, 2010.
-
-.. _roles:
-
-Roles
-=====
-
-.. index::
-   single: roles
-
-Using :extension:`GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving`
-(:ref:`newtype-deriving`), a programmer can take existing
-instances of classes and "lift" these into instances of that class for a
-newtype. However, this is not always safe. For example, consider the
-following:
-
-::
-
-      newtype Age = MkAge { unAge :: Int }
-
-      type family Inspect x
-      type instance Inspect Age = Int
-      type instance Inspect Int = Bool
-
-      class BadIdea a where
-        bad :: a -> Inspect a
-
-      instance BadIdea Int where
-        bad = (> 0)
-
-      deriving instance BadIdea Age    -- not allowed!
-
-If the derived instance were allowed, what would the type of its method
-``bad`` be? It would seem to be ``Age -> Inspect Age``, which is
-equivalent to ``Age -> Int``, according to the type family ``Inspect``.
-Yet, if we simply adapt the implementation from the instance for
-``Int``, the implementation for ``bad`` produces a ``Bool``, and we have
-trouble.
-
-The way to identify such situations is to have *roles* assigned to type
-variables of datatypes, classes, and type synonyms.
-
-Roles as implemented in GHC are a from a simplified version of the work
-described in `Generative type abstraction and type-level
-computation <http://www.seas.upenn.edu/~sweirich/papers/popl163af-weirich.pdf>`__,
-published at POPL 2011.
-
-.. _nominal-representational-and-phantom:
-
-Nominal, Representational, and Phantom
---------------------------------------
-
-.. index::
-   single: representational; role
-   single: nominal; role
-   single: phantom; role
-
-The goal of the roles system is to track when two types have the same
-underlying representation. In the example above, ``Age`` and ``Int``
-have the same representation. But, the corresponding instances of
-``BadIdea`` would *not* have the same representation, because the types
-of the implementations of ``bad`` would be different.
-
-Suppose we have two uses of a type constructor, each applied to the same
-parameters except for one difference. (For example, ``T Age Bool c`` and
-``T Int Bool c`` for some type ``T``.) The role of a type parameter says
-what we need to know about the two differing type arguments in order to
-know that the two outer types have the same representation (in the
-example, what must be true about ``Age`` and ``Int`` in order to show
-that ``T Age Bool c`` has the same representation as ``T Int Bool c``).
-
-GHC supports three different roles for type parameters: nominal,
-representational, and phantom. If a type parameter has a nominal role,
-then the two types that differ must not actually differ at all: they
-must be identical (after type family reduction). If a type parameter has
-a representational role, then the two types must have the same
-representation. (If ``T``\'s first parameter's role is representational,
-then ``T Age Bool c`` and ``T Int Bool c`` would have the same
-representation, because ``Age`` and ``Int`` have the same
-representation.) If a type parameter has a phantom role, then we need no
-further information.
-
-Here are some examples: ::
-
-      data Simple a = MkSimple a          -- a has role representational
-
-      type family F
-      type instance F Int = Bool
-      type instance F Age = Char
-
-      data Complex a = MkComplex (F a)    -- a has role nominal
-
-      data Phant a = MkPhant Bool         -- a has role phantom
-
-The type ``Simple`` has its parameter at role representational, which is
-generally the most common case. ``Simple Age`` would have the same
-representation as ``Simple Int``. The type ``Complex``, on the other
-hand, has its parameter at role nominal, because ``Complex Age`` and
-``Complex Int`` are *not* the same. Lastly, ``Phant Age`` and
-``Phant Bool`` have the same representation, even though ``Age`` and
-``Bool`` are unrelated.
-
-.. _role-inference:
-
-Role inference
---------------
-
-What role should a given type parameter should have? GHC performs role
-inference to determine the correct role for every parameter. It starts
-with a few base facts: ``(->)`` has two representational parameters;
-``(~)`` has two nominal parameters; all type families' parameters are
-nominal; and all GADT-like parameters are nominal. Then, these facts are
-propagated to all places where these types are used. The default role
-for datatypes and synonyms is phantom; the default role for classes is
-nominal. Thus, for datatypes and synonyms, any parameters unused in the
-right-hand side (or used only in other types in phantom positions) will
-be phantom. Whenever a parameter is used in a representational position
-(that is, used as a type argument to a constructor whose corresponding
-variable is at role representational), we raise its role from phantom to
-representational. Similarly, when a parameter is used in a nominal
-position, its role is upgraded to nominal. We never downgrade a role
-from nominal to phantom or representational, or from representational to
-phantom. In this way, we infer the most-general role for each parameter.
-
-Classes have their roles default to nominal to promote coherence of
-class instances. If a ``C Int`` were stored in a datatype, it would be
-quite bad if that were somehow changed into a ``C Age`` somewhere,
-especially if another ``C Age`` had been declared!
-
-There is one particularly tricky case that should be explained: ::
-
-      data Tricky a b = MkTricky (a b)
-
-What should ``Tricky``'s roles be? At first blush, it would seem that
-both ``a`` and ``b`` should be at role representational, since both are
-used in the right-hand side and neither is involved in a type family.
-However, this would be wrong, as the following example shows: ::
-
-      data Nom a = MkNom (F a)   -- type family F from example above
-
-Is ``Tricky Nom Age`` representationally equal to ``Tricky Nom Int``?
-No! The former stores a ``Char`` and the latter stores a ``Bool``. The
-solution to this is to require all parameters to type variables to have
-role nominal. Thus, GHC would infer role representational for ``a`` but
-role nominal for ``b``.
-
-.. _role-annotations:
-
-Role annotations
-----------------
-
-.. extension:: RoleAnnotations
-    :shortdesc: Enable role annotations.
-
-    :since: 7.8.1
-
-    Allow role annotation syntax.
-
-Sometimes the programmer wants to constrain the inference process. For
-example, the base library contains the following definition: ::
-
-      data Ptr a = Ptr Addr#
-
-The idea is that ``a`` should really be a representational parameter,
-but role inference assigns it to phantom. This makes some level of
-sense: a pointer to an ``Int`` really is representationally the same as
-a pointer to a ``Bool``. But, that's not at all how we want to use
-``Ptr``\ s! So, we want to be able to say ::
-
-      type role Ptr representational
-      data Ptr a = Ptr Addr#
-
-The ``type role`` (enabled with :extension:`RoleAnnotations`) declaration
-forces the parameter ``a`` to be at role representational, not role
-phantom. GHC then checks the user-supplied roles to make sure they don't
-break any promises. It would be bad, for example, if the user could make
-``BadIdea``\'s role be representational.
-
-As another example, we can consider a type ``Set a`` that represents a
-set of data, ordered according to ``a``\'s ``Ord`` instance. While it
-would generally be type-safe to consider ``a`` to be at role
-representational, it is possible that a ``newtype`` and its base type
-have *different* orderings encoded in their respective ``Ord``
-instances. This would lead to misbehavior at runtime. So, the author of
-the ``Set`` datatype would like its parameter to be at role nominal.
-This would be done with a declaration ::
-
-      type role Set nominal
-
-Role annotations can also be used should a programmer wish to write a
-class with a representational (or phantom) role. However, as a class
-with non-nominal roles can quickly lead to class instance incoherence,
-it is necessary to also specify :extension:`IncoherentInstances` to allow
-non-nominal roles for classes.
-
-The other place where role annotations may be necessary are in
-``hs-boot`` files (:ref:`mutual-recursion`), where the right-hand sides
-of definitions can be omitted. As usual, the types/classes declared in
-an ``hs-boot`` file must match up with the definitions in the ``hs``
-file, including down to the roles. The default role for datatypes is
-representational in ``hs-boot`` files, corresponding to the common use
-case.
-
-Role annotations are allowed on data, newtype, and class declarations. A
-role annotation declaration starts with ``type role`` and is followed by
-one role listing for each parameter of the type. (This parameter count
-includes parameters implicitly specified by a kind signature in a
-GADT-style data or newtype declaration.) Each role listing is a role
-(``nominal``, ``representational``, or ``phantom``) or a ``_``. Using a
-``_`` says that GHC should infer that role. The role annotation may go
-anywhere in the same module as the datatype or class definition (much
-like a value-level type signature). Here are some examples: ::
-
-      type role T1 _ phantom
-      data T1 a b = MkT1 a     -- b is not used; annotation is fine but unnecessary
-
-      type role T2 _ phantom
-      data T2 a b = MkT2 b     -- ERROR: b is used and cannot be phantom
-
-      type role T3 _ nominal
-      data T3 a b = MkT3 a     -- OK: nominal is higher than necessary, but safe
-
-      type role T4 nominal
-      data T4 a = MkT4 (a Int) -- OK, but nominal is higher than necessary
-
-      type role C representational _   -- OK, with -XIncoherentInstances
-      class C a b where ...    -- OK, b will get a nominal role
-
-      type role X nominal
-      type X a = ...           -- ERROR: role annotations not allowed for type synonyms
-
-.. _hascallstack:
-
-HasCallStack
-============
-
-``GHC.Stack.HasCallStack`` is a lightweight method of obtaining a
-partial call-stack at any point in the program.
-
-A function can request its call-site with the ``HasCallStack`` constraint
-and access it as a Haskell value by using ``callStack``.
-
-One can then use functions from ``GHC.Stack`` to inspect or pretty
-print (as is done in ``f`` below) the call stack.
-
-   f :: HasCallStack => IO ()
-   f = putStrLn (prettyCallStack callStack)
-
-   g :: HasCallStack => IO ()
-   g = f
-
-Evaluating ``f`` directly shows a call stack with a single entry,
-while evaluating ``g``, which also requests its call-site, shows
-two entries, one for each computation "annotated" with
-``HasCallStack``.
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-   ghci> f
-   CallStack (from HasCallStack):
-     f, called at <interactive>:19:1 in interactive:Ghci1
-   ghci> g
-   CallStack (from HasCallStack):
-     f, called at <interactive>:17:5 in main:Main
-     g, called at <interactive>:20:1 in interactive:Ghci2
-
-The ``error`` function from the Prelude supports printing the call stack that
-led to the error in addition to the usual error message:
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-   ghci> error "bad"
-   *** Exception: bad
-   CallStack (from HasCallStack):
-     error, called at <interactive>:25:1 in interactive:Ghci5
-
-The call stack here consists of a single entry, pinpointing the source
-of the call to ``error``. However, by annotating several computations
-with ``HasCallStack``, figuring out the exact circumstances and sequences
-of calls that lead to a call to ``error`` becomes a lot easier, as demonstrated
-with the simple example below. ::
-
-   f :: HasCallStack => IO ()
-   f = error "bad bad bad"
-
-   g :: HasCallStack => IO ()
-   g = f
-
-   h :: HasCallStack => IO ()
-   h = g
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-   ghci> h
-   *** Exception: bad bad bad
-   CallStack (from HasCallStack):
-     error, called at call-stack.hs:4:5 in main:Main
-     f, called at call-stack.hs:7:5 in main:Main
-     g, called at call-stack.hs:10:5 in main:Main
-     h, called at <interactive>:28:1 in interactive:Ghci1
-
-The ``CallStack`` will only extend as far as the types allow it, for
-example ::
-
-   myHead :: HasCallStack => [a] -> a
-   myHead []     = errorWithCallStack "empty"
-   myHead (x:xs) = x
-
-   bad :: Int
-   bad = myHead []
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-   ghci> bad
-   *** Exception: empty
-   CallStack (from HasCallStack):
-     errorWithCallStack, called at Bad.hs:8:15 in main:Bad
-     myHead, called at Bad.hs:12:7 in main:Bad
-
-includes the call-site of ``errorWithCallStack`` in ``myHead``, and of
-``myHead`` in ``bad``, but not the call-site of ``bad`` at the GHCi
-prompt.
-
-GHC solves ``HasCallStack`` constraints in two steps:
-
-1. If there is a ``CallStack`` in scope -- i.e. the enclosing definition
-   has a ``HasCallStack`` constraint -- GHC will push the new call-site
-   onto the existing ``CallStack``.
-
-2. Otherwise GHC will solve the ``HasCallStack`` constraint for the
-   singleton ``CallStack`` containing just the current call-site.
-
-Importantly, GHC will **never** infer a ``HasCallStack`` constraint,
-you must request it explicitly.
-
-``CallStack`` is kept abstract, but GHC provides a function ::
-
-   getCallStack :: CallStack -> [(String, SrcLoc)]
-
-to access the individual call-sites in the stack. The ``String`` is the
-name of the function that was called, and the ``SrcLoc`` provides the
-package, module, and file name, as well as the line and column numbers.
-
-``GHC.Stack`` additionally exports a function ``withFrozenCallStack`` that
-allows users to freeze the current ``CallStack``, preventing any future push
-operations from having an effect. This can be used by library authors
-to prevent ``CallStack``\s from exposing unnecessary implementation
-details. Consider the ``myHead`` example above, the ``errorWithCallStack`` line in
-the printed stack is not particularly enlightening, so we might choose
-to suppress it by freezing the ``CallStack`` that we pass to ``errorWithCallStack``. ::
-
-   myHead :: HasCallStack => [a] -> a
-   myHead []     = withFrozenCallStack (errorWithCallStack "empty")
-   myHead (x:xs) = x
-
-.. code-block:: none
-
-   ghci> myHead []
-   *** Exception: empty
-   CallStack (from HasCallStack):
-     myHead, called at Bad.hs:12:7 in main:Bad
-
-**NOTE**: The intrepid user may notice that ``HasCallStack`` is just an
-alias for an implicit parameter ``?callStack :: CallStack``. This is an
-implementation detail and **should not** be considered part of the
-``CallStack`` API, we may decide to change the implementation in the
-future.
-
-Compared with other sources of stack traces
--------------------------------------------
-
-``HasCallStack`` does not interact with the RTS and does not require
-compilation with ``-prof``. On the other hand, as the ``CallStack`` is
-built up explicitly via the ``HasCallStack`` constraints, it will
-generally not contain as much information as the simulated call-stacks
-maintained by the RTS.
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/index.rst b/docs/users_guide/index.rst
index 444a20c..90baa32 100644
--- a/docs/users_guide/index.rst
+++ b/docs/users_guide/index.rst
@@ -15,10 +15,9 @@ Contents:
    ghci
    runghc
    usage
-   profiling
-   lang
-   ffi-chap
+   exts
    extending_ghc
+   profiling
    debug-info
    gone_wrong
    hints
diff --git a/docs/users_guide/lang.rst b/docs/users_guide/lang.rst
deleted file mode 100644
index 47864a6..0000000
--- a/docs/users_guide/lang.rst
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,10 +0,0 @@
-.. _ghc-language-features:
-
-GHC Language Features
-=====================
-
-.. toctree::
-    glasgow_exts
-    parallel
-    safe_haskell
-